LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

il^ji.Lu iajn|ng]^t !f 0» 

Slielf..iLS^- 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



TALKS ABOUT 



COMMON THINGS, 



BY 



^MacLEOD. ^, 

Author of MacLeod Meproduction Stories, 3IacLeod Composition 
Outlines, Lessons on Common Minerals, etc. 



f>'^ C.OPYRJG 




mo 19,^. ^ 



NEW YORK : 
TEACHEK3 PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

1891. 






INTRODUCTION. 



The aim of this book is, as the name implies, to give inform- 
ation about the familiar objects around us. The work is especially- 
prepared for the school-room. 

As a supplementary reader it may be placed in the hands of the 
pupil, and as a book of reference for the teacher in preparing oral 
lessons, it will be found appropriate and useful. 

The Author. 

Copyrighted by the Author, Jan. 1891. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

COTTON '. 7 

Where Found — Appearance of Plant — Growth of Pods — Gathering the 
Cotton — The Cotton Gin —Getting Ready for the Factories — 
Manufacture of Cotton — Spinning-wheel — "The Jenny" — Spool- 
thread — The Weaving — Fabrics made of Cotton — Blackboard 
Outline. 

WOOL- 11 

From What Source Obtained— The First Step— The Washing— The 
Shearing — Appearance of Fleece — The Sorting — The Wool- 
comber — Manufacture — Yarn and Worsted — The Cloth — Where 
Manufactured — Varieties of Cloth — The Llama — Cashmere Goat 
—The Alpaca — The Early History of Wool — Blackboard 
Outline. 

SILK 16 

The Silk-worm — Method of Cultivation — The Cocoons — Destroying 
the Moths — Kinds of Silken Fabrics — Satin — Velvet — Gauze — 
Where Silk is Produced — Introduction of Worms into Europe — 
Method of Hatching Eggs — Different Ways of Heating Eggs- 
Blackboard Outline. 

FLAX 21 

The Plant — Where Raised— How Cultivated — How the Flax is Pre- 
pared — Manufacture — How Linen is Used — Damask — Lawn — 
Linen Manufacture in Egypt— The Seeds — Blackboard Outline. 

LEATHER 25 

Its Source — Preparation — Tanning the Hides— Varieties of Leather 
— Morocco Leather — Sheepskin — Kid — Materials for Writing — 
Vellum — Glue — Blackboard Outline. 

FUES 29 

Source — Preparation of Skins — Uses of Fur — The Seal — The Beaver — 
The Sable— The Ermine— The Marten— The Otter- -The Muskrat 
— The Fox — Blackboard Outline. 



IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

FEATHERS 34 

Source — Useful Feathers — Eider Ducks — Eider Ducks in Iceland — 
Swans-dowu — Ornamental Feathers — The Ostrich — Marabout 
Feathers — Osprey and Egret— Bird of Paradise — Hat Decorations 
— Blackboard Outline. 

TEA 38 

Appearance of Plant — How Cultivated — Varieties of Tea — Age of a 
Plantation — Preparation of the Leaves — Impurities in Tea — 
Consumption of Tea — Tea as a Drink — Effects of Tea Drinking 
-Tea Drinking iu China — Blackboard Outline. 

COFFEE 42 

Growth — Cultivation — Preparation — Coffee Producing Countries — 
Adulteration of Coffee — Use of Coffee — Physical Effects of Coffee 
— Use of Leaves — Story about Coffee — Blackboard Outline. 

CHOCOLATE 46 

The Cocoa Tree — The Fruit — Where Cocoa Grows — Cultivation — 
Preparation of Seeds — Chocolate as a Drink — Other Ways of 
Using Seeds — Blackboard Outline. 

RICE 49 

Plant — Where Found — Preparation for Use — The Kernels — The 
Importance of Rice iu China and India — General Cultivation — 
Difficulties in Cultivation — Rice as an Article of Food — Black- 
board Outline. 

SALT 53 

Where Found — How Obtained from Water — Salt-springs — Salt in the 
United States— Salt Mines — Preparation of Rock Salt — The 
Famous Mine of Poland — Uses of Salt — Religious Importance of 
Salt — Blackboard Outline. 

SUGAR 57 

From What Obtained — Cultivation — Where Sugar Canes Grow — 
Procuring the Sugar — The Refining Process — Maple Sugar — 
Other Sources of Sugar —Molasses — Uses of Sugar — Effect on 
Health — Blackboard Outline. 

BREAD GRAINS 61 

Wheat — Growth — Wheat iu America — Indian Corn — Oats — Barley — 
Rye — Blackboard Outline. 

CLOVES 65 

The Tree — Cloves — Uses of Cloves — Oil of Cloves — Blackboard 
Outline. 



TABIiE OF CONTENTS. V 

PEPPER 68 

The Plaut — Preparatiou — Uses — Effects of Pepper on the Health — 
Cayenne Pepper — Early use of Pepper — Blackboard Outline. 

WOOD 71 

Source — The Oak — Walnut — Mahogany —Rose- woo J — Pine- Maple 
The Chestnut Tree — Ebony — Cedar — Fuel — Blackboard Outline. 

CORK 75 

The Cork Tree — How Cork is Procured — How the Bark is Treated — 
Uses of Cork — Blackboard Outline. 

GLASS 78 

Manufacture — Glass Blowing — Kinds of Glass — Eiiut Glass — Plate 
Glass — Annealing — Crown Glass — Bottle Glass — Enamel — His- 
tory of Glass — Importance of Glass — Discovery of Glass-making 
— Blackboard Outline. 

SPONGE 82 

Origin — Appearance — From What Countries Obtained — Preparation 
for Use — Uses — Blackboard Outline. 

IVORY 85 

From What Source — Appearance of Ivory — Use of Ivory — Early 
History of Ivory — Vegetable Ivory — Blackboard Outline. 

BRICKS 89 

Manufacture — The Kilns — Color of Bricks — Terra Cotta — Early His- 
tory of Brick — Use — Blackboard Outline. 

INDIA RUBBER 93 

Source — How Procured — Preparation for the Market — Qualities of 
Rubber — Uses of Caoutchouc — Waterproof Clothing — Mackin- 
toshes—Vulcanized Rubber — The Rubber Tree — Blackboard 
Outline. 

TOBACCO 97 

Description of Plant — Cultivation — Where Raised — Preparation for 
the Market — Methods of Using — Wide-spread Use of Tobacco — 
Discovery by Spaniards — Effects of Using Tobacco — Cigarettes — 
No Decrease in Use — Blackboard Outline. 

PAPER 101 

How Made — Varieties of Paper — Wall-paper — Pasteboard — Papier- 
mache — Ancient Methods of Paper Making — Chinese Paper — 
Uses of Paper — The First Paper Makers — Blackboard Outline, 




Wliere found. — The cotton plant is cultivated 
in almost all warm countries. It is found in the re- 
gion of the Mediterranean Sea, in Europe, China, 
India, South America and the West Indies, but that 
of the best quality is raised in the southern portions 
of the United States. 

Appearance of Plant,— The plant grows to 

various heights in the different countries, in our 
own country being from five to six feet high, occa- 
sionally reaching the height of nine or ten feet. 
The seeds are sown in the spring-time, in rows 
about five feet apart, and soon the small shoots 
appear above the ground. The leaves of the plant 
are dark green, and the flowers are large, and 
usually bright yellow. 

G-rOWth. of pods. — As each flower drops from 
the plant, a seed-pod takes its place. These pods 
are three-sided, and are about the size of a walnut. 
When ripe, these pods burst open, showing the cot- 
ton stored within. A field of cotton in this stage 
is remarkably beautiful, the dark, glossy leaves, 
and snowy balls of cotton forming a decided con- 
trast. 



Name coun- 
tries which pro- 
duce cotton. 

Where does 
best quality 
grow? 

What is usual 
height of plant? 

When and 
how are the 
seeds sown? 

What color are 
the leaves and 
flowers? 

What shape 
are the pods? 

Where is the 

cotton? 

How does it 
look? 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 



What is in the 
cotton? 



G-athering the Cotton- — Now commences 

the process of making these downy balls into useful 
articles for mankind. The pods are gathered, and 
the cotton taken out and spread out to dry in the 

What is done T-rnr i iir •, i c 

with the seeds? ^i^"- ^^ IS full of seeds, and before it can be ot any 
use, these must be removed. For many years this 
was done by hand, and was a very tiresome pro- 

What machine CeSS. 

is used for rpj^^ CottOIl G-ill— Now a machine is used, 

cleaning cotton? .... . , , „ 

called a cotton-gin, which was invented by a Con- 
necticut man, named Eli Whitney. The cotton is 
Who invented passed between revolving cylinders, which are cov- 
it? ered with sharp teeth. These teeth tear the seeds 

from the cotton, and leave it soft and smooth. 
Horse-power is used to work the machine and so 
Find out all |-j,-j^g .^,^(j strength are saved, 
you can about 

him. Getting ready for the factories.— The 

cotton is pressed into large bundles or bales, each 
weighing several hundred pounds, and these bales 
How is the are sent to the different factories to be made into 
the various cloths we use so commonly. 

ManufaCtnre of Cotton.— The manufactur- 
ing of raw cotton into cloth is now done entirely by 
Which is done machinery. The cotton is thoroughly cleaned, and 
first, spinning then is spun into long, fine threads. 
or weaving? ^^^^^ Spinning-wheol.— Formerly a spin- 

ning-wheel, such as may often be seen now in coun- 
try houses, was used, and in this way but 07ie 
. °^ 7^^ thread could be drawn out at a time. 

spinning done 

many years ago? More than a hundred years ago a machine was 
invented, by which eight threads could be pro- 
duced at the same time, 
atwas le rpj^g "Jenny." — The people, however, were 
afraid that tkis new machine, called the "jenny." 



cotton sent to 
the factories? 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 9 

would deprive them of work, and they drove Har- How were the 
S^reaves, the inventor, from the town, and destroyed '"^^""^'O" '^"' 

f. , . T 1 • )» • the inventor 

his machme. Later on, the "jenny was miproved treated by the 
upon, and became very generally used. Continued people? 
improvements have made the machinery in use now< 
so perfect as to render the process of spinning very °^^ * 

names ot those 

easy and rapid. ^h^ improved 

Spool-thread. — When several of the fine the "jenny." 
threads are spun and twisted together, they form 
our strong sewing-cotton, and the manufacture of ^' '^ ^" 

f^. . . common use, 

spool-thread is of itself an important industry. that is made of 

Tlie "W"ea,ving. — The weaving follows the cotton? 

.spinning and threads are crossed and recrossed, 

and so woven into cloth. The threads which ex- ^^^^ follows 

tend the length of the cloth form the warp, and the ^^^ "'"^' 

threads crossing these threads from side to side what is warp? 

form the woof ox weft. As it leaves the loom, as the 

weaving machine is called, the cloth looks like the 

unbleached muslin, sold in the stores, and is used What is the 

for many purposes. Most of it is bleached or ,. '^'"S""^^" 

J ^ Y chine called? 

whitened and is of course, much nicer. 

Fabrics made of Cotton. — Various names Name kinds 

are given to the different goods made of cotton. °f '^'^^^ m^A& 
Gingham, cambric, muslin, and lawn, are familiar 

to all. Calico is printed with colored figures, and where was 

is named from the city of Calicut, in India, where calico first 

it was first made. made? 

Chintz is a kind of calico, heavy in texture, and „„ , ,. 

. ■' ' What delicate 

gay in coloring. ^ fabric is made of 

In contrast to this thick material, very delicate cotton? 
lace is also manufactured from cotton. 

In addition to these fabrics, there are many made f^ '^ .*^°\' 

ton often mixed 

of a mixture of cotton with silk or wool. .^^jtli? 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE 



COTTON. 

1. WHERE CULTIVATED ? 6. THE COTTON-GIN. 

2. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. 7. THE SPINNING. 

3. APPEARANCE OF PODS. 8. THE "JENNY." 

4. GATHERING PODS. 9. THE WEAVING. 

5. DRYING AND CLEANING 10. KINDS OF COTTON 

COTTON. CLOTH. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING COTTON. 



1. A REAL COTTON BLOSSOM; IF NOT OBTAINABLE, 

THEN A PICTURE OF ONE (SHEPARD'S SCHOOL- 
ROOM STENCIL OF COTTON.) 

2. MAPS OF HEMISPHERES — (STENCIL MAPS, WITH 

COTTON BELT INDICATED). 

3. SPOOLS OF THREAD. 

4. LOOSE PIECES OF COTTON. 

5. SAMPLES OF GINGHAM, MUSLIN, LACE, Etc. 




From what source obtained.— The term 

woolis applied to the fleece of common sheep, such 
as are found in the mountainous regions of many- 
countries, also to the silky covering of the llama 
and alpaca, and the fine hair of the Cashmere goat. 
The llama and alpaca are natives of Peru, and the 
goat is found in the hilly portions of Thibet and 
Tartary. 

We will first consider the process of changing 
the covering of common sheep into a useful article 
of commerce. 

The first step. — The first thing to do, is to 
wash the sheep. In their wanderings over the hills, 
thorns and thistles, and quantities of dust gather 
in their fleece. 

The washing. — The sheep are driven into a 
shallow stream, on a warm day in June or July, and 
thoroughly washed, a process to which they strong- 
ly object. 

The sheep are then allowed to run around in a 
clean place until their fleece is dry. 



What is wool? 



Where is the 
llama found? 

Where is 
Thibet? Tar- 
tary? 



In what con- 
dition is the 
wool before 
washing? 



At what sea- 
son does the 
washing occur? 



How does the 
hair look? 



12 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

What are TllG sliearillg. — The fleece is then cut off with 
shears? large shears. 

Appearance of fleece. — When examined 
closely, it is found that this fleece is composed of 
hairs of different lengths, each hair somewhat curly, 
and having uneven edges. The irregularity of 
the edges of these fibres is one of the chief reasons 
why wool is such an important material of manu- 

Aretherouch ^ , rj^, ,.,^, , ... i • u 

ed'^es of the f^cture. 1 he little rougli projections which you 

fibres oi any Will find on wool fibres, if you examine them 

use? through a microscope, cause these fibres to attach 

themselves to each other very firmly. 

Th.e sorting. — The fleece is carefully sorted, 
Are the hairs the long hairs being separated from the short ones- 
all the same Hairs of various lengths are found on a single 
length? sheep. The fleece is then cleansed again, for the 

first washing is not sufficient to remove all im- 
purities. 

The "WOOl-COmber.— Next, to straighten the 

oware te j^^jj-g^ ^,^(j jg^y ^hej^i ^11 out in the same direction, 

ened? '^ ''1" i''ori comb is used, called a wool-comber. It has 

sharp pointed teeth. 

What two Mamifacture. — The wool fibres are then spun 

processes con- . i , , ^ • ^ r ^ • 

vert the raw and woven into cloth, the Same kind of machinery 
wool into cloth? being iised as in the manufacture of cotton cloth. 

Yarn and worsted— Some of the wool is 

Whatisyarn.^ not woveii, but after being spun into threads, 

Worsted? several threads are twisted to make j^/v/, which is 

used for making stockings. When the threads are 

twisted very firmly, wonted is made, from which 

so many beautiful fancy articles are fashioned. 

The cloth. — Woolen cloth as it conies from the 
loom is very soft and flexible. It is sometimes 
colored before being woven, but usually is dyed 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 13 

after being- made into cloth. Woolen cloth is e.s- What .season 
pecially adapted for making^ clothing to be worn in ° ^ ^ ^^^^ , 

^ -^ a ^ ^g wear woolen 

cold weather. clothing? 

Where mamifactured.— France and Eng- Where is 

land manufacture a large quantity of woolen cloth woolen cloth 
ever}^ year. '"^'^^ 

In the New England section of our own country 
are many mills which produce a very fine grade of 
goods. 

Varieties of cloth.— The cloth receives dif- 
ferent names, owing to slight differences in tex- 
ture or width. 

Broadcloth is a finely finished goods, very wide. What is 
It is used principally for gentlemen's clothing. roatcoti 

^ ^ -^ *^ '^ Merino? 

Merino is made from the fleece of a species of Name some 
sheep of that name. Flannel is a heavy material garments al- 
used for blankets and underclothing. T^'^y' "'^''^ °f 

^ flannel? 

Shoddy is a coarse goods used for rugs, carpets 
and rough cloth for overcoats. It is made of old 
woolen rags which are cleaned and softened by 
machinery, and spun and woven over again. 
Sometimes a little fresh wool is added to the old 

, , What use is 

Stock. , , ,, 

made of old 

Many of the beautiful table-covers and carpets woolen rags? 
we see, are made of old soiled woolen rags dis- 
carded as unfit for use. 

Felt is a thick cloth used for making hats and 

What is felt 

floor-covering. It is made of wool and hair mixed ^^^^ f^,? 

together, but not woven. Layers of wool and hair Is this goods 

are spread on top of each other, then dampened ^P^" °'" woven? 

and submitted to great pressure. The roupfh edees ^ow is it 

& fc> made? 

of the wool fibres, before spoken of, make this pro- 
cess possible, for the little projections interlace and 



Describe tl 


le 


llama? 




Where 
Peru? 


i s 


Where we 


;e 



14 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

take firm hold of each other, so that after the 
pressing it is impossible to separate the fibres. 

Th.e Llama. — This animal is somewhat like a 
camel in shape, only it has no hump. It is some- 
times called the Peruvian camel. Its hair is long 
and silky and is much used for fringes and orna- 
ments. 

The Cashmere Goat.— This goat is so called 

Indian shawls because its hair was first made into beautiful shawls 

first made? in the City of Cashmere, in India. They are now 

made also in some parts of France. The outer 
How does the . . , . .„ 

fleece of this hair of the animal is stiff and coarse, while under 

goat grow? this is a layer of fine silky fleece. The latter is 

used for the shawls. These shawls are elaborate in 

design and coloring, and are very expensive. 

What other The Alpaca. — This is a smaller animal than 

animal produces ,1 11 j u 1 1 j i. j 

.' , , the llama, and has a long neck and handsome 

material for . ° 

woolen cloth- head. Its wool is long and glossy. The material 
ing? Describe made of it bears the name, rt'//(7r(^, and retains the 
it- silky gloss, peculiar to the hair of the animal. 

I s woolen Eaplj historj of -wool.— The manufacture 

manufacture a of wool into cloth dates back to a very early period 

new industry? in the history of the world. From the Bible we 

learn of the flocks of sheep which constituted the 

chief wealth of the patriarchs of olden time. The 

nations lived? Hebrews, Greeks, Egyptians and Romans all used 

clothing woven of this material. Their garments 

were loose and flowing, and they were very par- 
How was a., , 1 r 11 ri 

Roman tor a ^icular about the fineness and beauty of the ma- 
made? terial of which i\\ey were made. 



Tell where 
each of these 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



WOOL. 

1. WHAT IS IT? 7. MANUFACTUBE. 

2. WASHING THE SHEEP. 8. YABN AND WOESTED. 

3. SHEAKING THE SHEEP. 9. VAEIETIES OF CLOTH. 

4. SORTING THE HAIRS. 10. THE LLAMA. 

5. APPEARANCE OF FIBRES. 11. THE ALPACA. 

6. COMBING THE WOOL. 12. THE CASHMERE GOAT. 

13. WOOL IN ANCIENT TIMES. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING WOOL. 



1. PICTURES OF SHEEP, ALPACA, LLAMA, AND 

CASHMERE GOAT. 

2. SAMPLE OF FLEECE. 

3. SAMPLES OF YARN AND WORSTED. 

4. PIECES OF FLANNEL, MERINO, FELT, &c. 

5. MAPS OF THE COUTRIES MENTIONED IN THIS 

ARTICLE. 




W^'- 



What insect TllS Silk-"WOriIL. — Silk IS obtained from small 

reduces silk? caterpillars about two inches long, and light 

colored. The leaves of the mulberry tree are the 

On what does principal food of these worms and they eat greedily 
of them. 

Method of cultivation. — The worms are 

How is the placed on shelves in a room which is kept at sum- 
cultivation of mer heat. The insects are then supplied with mul- 
berry leaves, of which they partake eagerly for 
several weeks. They grow very stupid and in- 
crease to double their original size. 

Th.e cocoons. — When the worms can eat no 
more, they commence spinning two silken threads 
from two compartments in their wonderful little 
bodies. They unite these threads by means of a 
gum, secreted in their mouths, and envelope them- 
selves in the silk until entirely hidden. The 
shelves are then covered with these balls of silk 
called cocoons. They are light colored, and the 
size of a pigeon's Q^%. 

Destroying the moths.— The silk cultiva- 
tor selects a number of perfect cocoons, and puts 



it feed? 



the worm con- 
ducted? 



How are the 
cocoons made? 



Describe 
their appear- 
ance? 



What is the 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. Xj 

them away as a supply for th.; next season. The What trans- 
moths in these cocoons are allowed to work a pas formation oc- 

, curs within the 

sage out. The other cocoons are heated m an oven .^ocoons? 
until the moths are dead, then the outer floss, which 
is coarse and rough is removed. The inner balls are ^°^ '^ ^^ 
thrown into hot water to loosen the silken threads, ^' ^!^° "^ 

from the co- 

which are then carefully unwound. The thread in coons? 
a single cocoon generally measures about six hun- 
dred yards. Occasionally one is found twelve 

_,, , , r 1 usual length of 

hundred yards long. The threads are so fine, that ^^^ thread? 

several cocoons are untwisted at the same time, 

and the threads wound on a reel. In this state the ^^^* '^ '"'"'^ 

silk? 

silk is called raw-silk. These threads go through 
the processes of spinning and weaving, that the What pro- 
cotton and woolen threads do, and finally we have cesses convert 
the beautiful silken textures so much used. .,, . 

silken mate- 
Kinds of silken-fabrics.— ^^'^^-^^--y^'^^' is rials? 

woven like plain cloth, and has a lustrous appear- 
ance. It varies in color and quality and is often 
named after the manufacturer or the city in which 1 

it is made. • 

Satin is a very elegant material. The woof or 
cross-wise threads pass over several threads of the 

warp at a time. The fabric is then passed between °^ '^ 

. woven? 

heated iron rollers, which impart a smooth and 

glossy appearance. 

Velvet has a silky pile on its surface formed by 

short pieces of thread which are crowded together 

so closely that they stand up and hide the warp ^°^ ^^ 

, f. vet made? 

and wool. 

Gauze is a thin material, woven in a peculiar 
manner which gives firmness without thickness. 
It is used for making veils. What \% 

Besides these plain materials, there are some S^*^^^ 



iS TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

that are brocaded, or ornamented with figures and 
flowers. 

What is silk 
sometimes ^^'^ ^^ often mixed with wool, as in bombazine 
mixed with? and popHn. 

Where did Where silk is produced. 

(, ^ . The cultivation of silk-worms was first attempted 

hrst assume im- _ '^ 

portance? in China, and for a long time was not introduced 

in any other country. China still takes the lead in 

What coun- ■' -^ . . 

tries manu- silk manufacture, but it is now made in France, 

facture silk? Italy, Persia and India. The city of Lyons, in 

Where i r France, produces some of the richest silk fabrics in 

Lyons? the world. 

Introduction ofWorms into Europe.— 

How was the ^-i r , -n - i r r^\ ■ 4. 

... The first silk-worms were taken from Lliina to 

silk-worm car- 
ried to Europe? Europe by two Persian monks. They had great 

difficulty in obtaining worms, for the Chinese were 

opposed to having any other nation cultivating 

them, and used every effort to keep their methods 

of making silk a secret. 

At last these monks succeeded in procuring a few 

W li G r c is 

Constantinoph ? ^ggs, which they hid in their clothing and carried 
to Constantinople, where they hatched them. 

What is Method of hatching eggs.— I have told 

necessary to yQ^ ^^^t out of every Collection of cocoons, a num- 

hatch the eggs . . . , ^ ^ 

of silk-worms? ^er of perfect ones are retained for future supply. 

The moths crawl out and lay quantities of tiny- 
eggs. The moths then die. 

Care must be taken that these eggs do not be- 
come heated which would cause them to hatch at 
Is it wise to once. The cultivator does not wish them to hatch 
hatch them at yj^^-j] ^j^g mulberry leaves are again plentiful. The 

any season? , , . , 1 ..1 in- 1 

eggs are placed in glass bottles, and all air and 
heat excluded. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. £9 

When it is desired to hatch them, heat is all that 
is necessary. 

Different "ways of heating eggs. — I" 

some countries the warmth of the sun is sufficient. ^^^^ °^ 

The usual method is to place the eggs in heated methods of heat 
rooms until hatched. ingeggs? 

In other places they are placed in small paper 
packages and the peasants wear them in their 
bosoms, until the warmth of their bodies makes the 
eggs ready to hatch. 

The insects are very small and dark colored How do the 
when they first appear. insects look 

^T^i .,, , . ,i-i' r when first 

1 hey grow rapidly, changmg their skins tour or , , ,, 

five times. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



SILK. 



1. THE SILK- WORMS. 

2. CULTIVATION OF 

WORMS. 

3. THE COCOONS. 

4. THE MOTHS. 

5. OBTAINING THE SILK. 

6. MANUFACTURE. 



7. SILKEN FABRICS. 

8. SILK PRODUCING 

COUNTRIES. 

9. INTRODUCTION OF SILK 

INTO EUROPE. 
10. METHOD OF HATCHING 
EGGS. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING SILK. 



1. SILK- WORM, OR PICTURE OF ONE. 

2. COCOON, OR PICTURE OF ONE. 

3. MOTH AND EGGS, OR PICTURES OF THEM. 

4. RAW-SILK. 

5. SPOOLS OF SEWING-MACHINE SILK, FLOSS Etc. 

6. SAMPLES OF VELVET, SATIN, GAUZE Etc. 




The plant.— Flax is a plant from two to three 
feet in height, with small pointed leaves and blue 
flowers. The stems are very peculiar, being hol- 
low and covered with fibrous material. The 
flowers grow in clusters at the top of the stalks, 
and when they fall off, are succeeded by round 
seed-vessels, the size of a pea. Each seed-vessel 
contains ten flat seeds of a brown color. 



From what 
source is flax 
obtained ? 



Where are 
the seeds found? 



"Where raised.— Flax is cultivated in most 
parts of the world. It was first known in Egypt. Where does 
A fine species of the plant is now found in Holland ^^^ grow? 
and Belgium, and is also raised in Ireland. In 
Belgium the women work in the flax fields. This 
useful plant was introduced into America in 1629 When was 
from England, which country owes its knowledge ^^^ ^""^^ ^^^" ^" 
of the plant to the Romans. m n a 

It is now extensively cultivated in the United 
States. 

HO"W cultivated. — Flax thrives upon a rich, 
moist soil. The seeds are sown early in the when is the 
spring and the crops are gathered in July and Au- flax ripe? 
gust. Sometimes a second crop can be obtained 
later on. In June, when the delicate blue flowers 



22 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

are in bloom, the flax fields present a beautiful ap- 

How does a ,-., , , ^, i i • 

flax field look? pearance. When the plants are thoroughly ripe, 
the leaves drop off, and the stems turn yellow. 

How the flax is prepared.— The stalks are 

pulled up and tied in bundles to dry. The seed- 
vessels are taken off and put away in bags for 
ow are le ^^ jj^^ stalks are steeped in water until 

fibres sepaiatetl? ^ 

softened so that the fibres of the outside covering 
or bark can be separated. After being dried in 
the sun, any woody portion of the plant which may 
How cleaned adhere to the fibres is removed by an instrument 
and straight- called a brake. To prepare the flax for the spin- 
•^"^^ ** niiig machine, the fibres must be laid out straight. 

This is done with 2i hatchel, a contrivance resemb- 
ling a brush, with sharp pointed needles on it 
, 1^-. ^fr, ^ where the bristles are usually found. The flax is 

hatchel? What . -^ 

is tow? drawn over these points, and the long fibres be- 

come straight. The short, uneven ones are left, 
and make a substance called tow. 

What is done MaiUlfaCture.— The processes required to con - 

tomakeflaxinto vert these fibres into cloth are the same that are 

cloth? necessary in the manufacture of wool and cotton. 

The spinning and weaving are now done entirely 

by machinery. Flax fibres are of a brownish color, 

IT ■ a and have to be bleached before the beautiful white 

How IS II ax 

sometimes whit- color of linen Can be obtained. The quickest way 
ened? to accompHsh this is to use chloride of lime. 

How linen is used. — Various qualities of linen 
What is linen are manufactured, which are used for making sheets, 
used for? handkerchiefs and underclothing. From linen 

thread we make lace and fancy edgings. 

What is dam- Damask. — A rich variety of linen cloth, woven 
ask? with figures, is called damask. Ireland manufac- 



TALKS AKOUT COMMON THINGS. 2} 

tures a fine (|uality of this material. It i.s used for 
tablecloths, napkins and towels. 

Lawn i-'^ ii very fine material, first made in Laun ? 
France. It is now made in ielfast and other cities 
of Ireland. 

Linen mannfacture in Egypt.— The spin- whatcountry 

J . ^ £, . . ,V="' -^ . , , first engaged in 

ninof and weavinsj of uax into linen is a very old ,. r 

° *^ -^ linen manufac- 

industry. Egypt was noted for the fineness of the ture? 
linen made there, thousands of years ago. Some 

of this linen is on exhibition in museums in our h o w was 

large cities, forming the wrappings of Egyptian much of it used 

mummies. Many yards of these goods were used m that country? 
for that purpose and examination shows that it was 

of a very fine quality. Where do the 

The Greeks and Romans also used large quanti- Greeks and Ro- 

ties of linen in the early ages. mans live? 

The seeds. — The seeds of the flax plant are ot what use 
very valuable. They are ground and pressed and are the seeds? 
yield a useful oil known as linseed oil. This oil is „„ . ,. 

•^ . . What is lin- 

used for mixing paints and varnishes. seed oilused lor? 

Flax seeds are also used as a medicine for colds 
and lung trouble. They are often made into poul- 
tices. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



FLAX. 

1. THE FLAX PLANT. 5. USES OF LINEN CLOTH. 

2. CULTIVATION. 6. LINEN IN OLDEN TIMES. 

3. PREPAEATION OF FIBRES. 7. FLAX SEEDS. 

4. MANUFACTURE. 8. LINSEED OIL. 

OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING FLAX. 



1. PICTURE OF PLANT. 

2. SAMPLES OF FLAX FIBRE. 

3. SPOOL OF LINEN THREAD. 

4. PIECES OF LINEN, DAMASK, &c. 

5. BOTTLE OF LINSEED OIL. 

6. SEEDS AS PREPARED FOR POULTICE. 




Its source.— The skins of horses, cows, calves ^^^^ -^ ^^^_ 
and oxen are converted into leather, also the skins ther made of? 
of the wild herds of cattle found in South America, 
Switzerland and Mexico. 

Several processes are necessary to change the 
hides into the durable, useful material known as 
leather. 

Preparation. — The raw hides are cleaned to ^^^^ «s the 
remove the fat that may be on them, and then they '^ • r 

■' ... preparation ot 

are soaked in lime and water. This liquid loosens the skins? 
the hair so that it can be pulled out. 

The clean hides are again soaked in water mixed How are the 
with barley, or some substance of an acid nature, pores opened? 
The pores of the skins become open, and they are 
ready for the next operation called tanning. 

Tanning the hides.— The bark of the oak or vvi^^j 3 ^ b- 
hemlock tree is dried and ground into a coarse stance is used 
powder. This powder is mixed with water and put for tanning? 
into large vats. The skins are soaked in this 
liquid for many months, The action of the bark 



26 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

Howdoesthe causes the skins to shrink in size, and become very 
leather appear gt^ong, while at the same time they are flexible. 

after tanning? . .... . , , , , 

After remaming m the tan-pits untilthorous^hly 
How is the . , , . , , , • , , , 

leather made tanned, the skms are taken out and dried, and then 

smooth? passed between rollers to make them smooth. 

Varieties of leather. — The above operations 
„„ , . are necessary to convert the raw hides into leather. 

What skin.s are ■' 

used for shoes ? Slight variations in the manner of treatment pro- 
duce the different kinds of leather. The skins of 
calves and sometimes those of cows are used for 
the uppers of boots and shoes, and the hides of 
oxen are made into the soles. 
What is seal The latter animals also furnish the leather for 
skin used for? straps and harnesses. Seal skin is converted into a 
firm leather used for the tops of hunting boots, and 
for the manufacture of bags and pocket-books. 
What is Mo- Morocco leather. — The skins of goats found 
roco leather ? jj^ Switzerland are used for making Morocco leather. 
Is there any After the tanning, for which sumach is used instead 
peculiarity i n of oak-bark, the leather is rubbed with a ball with 

appeara ^ ribbed surface, so that it will have a grained ap- 
of Morocco lea- _ . 

tiier? pearance. It is used for covering chairs, books, &c. 

Sheep skin forms a cheap leather which is used 
J ^ ^ for pocket-books, lining bags and covering books. 

Kid. — The skins of lambs and young goats are 

What is kid? used for making gloves and ladies' shoes. They are 

not soaked in tan-bark and water, but alum is used 

. instead of the bark. This renders the skins very 
What IS it •' 

used for? soft and flexible. The leather so made is known 

by the general term of kid. 

The manufacture of shoes is extensively engaged 
Where are j^ throughout the New England States. In Eng- 

shoes made ? , , f „ , - . . . . , 

land and r ranee also this is an important mdustry. 
Fine leather gloves are obtained from Germany. 



TALKS AHOUT CO^rMON THINGS. 2/ 

Materials for writing- — Parchment is a ma- 
terial made from the skins of sheep or goats. The What is parch- 
skins are soaked in water mixed with lime, salt and ina<iefrom? 
alum, then they are scraped smooth and stretched 
until they are very thin. This kind of leather was 
first made in Asia, many years ago. It was used Of what use 
for writing upon, and it was upon this material that '■'^"' 
the first copies of the Bible were made. 

"Vellnill is made from the skins of calves treated ^yj^^^^ ^^^^^ 
to the same process. It is strong- and delicate, and writing materia', 
was used in olden times for the leaves of books, i'^ made of lea- 
Some of these books are yet in existence, and are ^ 
very curious and beautiful. 

G'lue- — The small pieces of leather which are 

left after the various articles have been manufac- Of "^^^^ ^^^ 

tured are not wasted. They are boiled until they ^! ^ , 

•' _ "^ pieces oi lea- 

form a jelly-like substance. This, when it hardens, jj^gf j. 

is the glue so useful in many ways. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 









LEATHER. 


1. 


WHEEE OBTAINED 


5. 


ARTICLES MADE OF 


2. 


PEEPAKATION. 






LEATHER. 


3. 


TANNING. 




6. 


KID. 


4. 


VARIETIES OF 




7. 


PARCHMENT. 




LEATHER. 


9. 


8. 
GLUE. 


VELLUM. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING LEATHER. 



1. SKINS IN RAW STATE. 

2. PIECES OF TAN-BARK. 

3. SAMPLES OF LEATHER 

4. ARTICLES MADE OF LEATHER AS SHOES, POCKET- 

BOOK, STRAP, BAG, &c. 

5. KID GLOVES. 

6. GLUE. 

7. PIECE OF PARCHMENT. 

8. PICTURES OF ANIMALS NAMED. 




Source. — Fur is a name applied to the fine, 
hairy covering of certain animals. The animals 
producing the finest fur are found in cold regions. 
The largest number come from countries bordering 
on the Arctic Ocean. The most well-known fur- 
bearing animals are the seal, beaver, sable, fox, 
mink, marten, otter, ermine and muskrat. 

Preparation of skins.— After the skins have 
been removed from the animals and before they 
are cleaned, they are called pelts. The pelts are 
cleaned and dried and then placed in tubs, where 
they are subjected to a treading process. Men 
trample on them until they are soft and flexible. 
Before the pelts are trampled on, they are greased 
with lard, which adds to the softness. They are 
next placed in tubs and covered with saw-dust 
and the treading is repeated. This operation is 
repeated a third time with plaster of Paris or whit- 
ing laid between the pelts. The skins are then 
vigorously beaten, and the hair combed until it is 
smooth. Furs are frequently dyed to make them 
of a richer color. 



What is fur? 



Name some 
animals that 
furnish fur. 



What are 
pelts ? 



What is done 
to soften them ? 



What differ- 
ent substances 
are used on the 
pelts ? 



^O TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

What is fur Uses of fur.— Fur forms the principal cloth- 
used for? ing of the inhabitants of very cold regions. The 
Esquimaux and inhabitants of Greenland and Ice- 
land depend entirely upon fur-bearing animals for 
the warm clothing so necessary in the countries in 
"^ ° *•" which they live. In the temperate reerions, furs 

quimaux live? '■ o > 

are used as ornamental additions to the toilet and 
are very costly. 

Name some TllG Seal. — This animal is found in the countries 
countries bor- bordering on the Arctic Ocean. It spends most 

derine: on tlie r •,. j.- • .1 1. t •, • 1 

. „ ot Its time m the water. In appearance it is awk- 

Arctic Ocean. . '^ '^ 

ward, about five or six feet in length, with a small 
head and brown fur. The under layer of fur is 
composed of short, fine hair. Beyond this, long, 
coarse hairs extend. These are removed and the 
short fur is used. The fur is slightly curly, but 

Describe the o y j j 

J " after dyeing it becomes straight. Seals are caught 

in this manner. The hunters wait until a large 
number are asleep on the rocks near the water. 
They then surround them and drive them to the 
killing ground which is at some distance. The 

How are seals men then gather around the herd and beat them to 

killed? death with heavy clubs. The seals are so crowded 

together and so tired from their long journey on 

land, that they offer but little resistance. The fur 

For what is of the Seal is very valuable. It is used for making 

seal-skin used? , rr j ^ • • 

overcoats, sacques, muns and trimmings. 

The beaver. — North America is the home of 

the beaver. So many of these animals have been 

killed to furnish fur, that they are becoming very 

What IS bea g^^^rce. The fur is a dark, rich color and is used 

vcr uscl lor ^ 

for muffs, collars, capes and trimmings. Beaver is 
also extensively used for making hats. When 
made into material for hats, the hair is removed 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 3I 

from the skin. This hair has the same property of How is it 
felting thcit wool has, and is treated in the same prepared for 

hat-making ? 

way. 

The sable. — This animal is a native of Siberia, 
but like the beaver, is rapidly disappearing. The where are 
sables vary somewhat in color. Some have long, sables found ? 
dark brown hair ; others have dark hair with white 
points. The most valuable .are all black, but these j^j^^ ^^^ ^^_ 
are very scarce. The process of catching sables bias captured ? 
is a difficult one. In the autumn the hunters travel 
in sleds to where the sables abound and erect huts 
in which they live several months. It is extremely Describe the 
cold and the hunters suffer many hardships. The ^''"°"' ^'"^' 

. of sable fur. 

sables are caught in traps, which are scattered over 
a large extent of land. The fur is very expensive. 
The ermine —The fur of this animal used to "ow was er- 

. , , , r 1 • mine formerly 

be the favorite material for the robes of kings and yg^jy 
queens. It is not so fashionable now, and therefore 
not so expensive. The animal is found h ^hf Arc- 
tic regions of Europe and Asia and is a little over Describe the 

ermine ? 

a foot long. In summer the fur is a reddish brown, 

but in winter it becomes pure white except the tail, ^j^^j ^^^ j^ 

which is pale yellow with jet black tip. The tails made of the 

are used to decorate the muffs, collars, etc., made tails? 

of the ermine. 

The marten. — This animal is found in North 
America and possesses valuable fur. There are what family 
several species of martens. The mink belongs to does the mink 
this family, and has beautiful brown fur, with stripes l^elo"§ '^ 
of a darker shade. Mink is used for muffs and 
capes, also for lining outdoor garments. 

The Otter.— Russia is the home of the otter. How does the 
It is three or four feet long and has glossy brown otter look? 



32 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

How does it fur. It lives in the water and swims very rapidly. 

carry its young? It has extraordinary love for its young and when 

moving from place to place will carry the little 

ones in its mouth. The otters frequently lie on the 

rocks in the sunshine, and it is while they are asleep 

How are ot- '" ^^^^^ way, that the hunters kill them. They are 

ters killed? eithqr shot or caught in nets. A species of otter 

is found in Alaska and in nearly all the States and 

Territories. 

Th.e muskrat. — The muskrat resembles a 
Tell some of ^^^^^ beaver. Its habits resemble those of the 

the habits of the t i • i ,i , i i 

^1 ,„, beaver. It has its home near the water and spends 

nillSKl 3.1. ■*■ 

much time swimming. It builds a little hut in 

which it lives during the winter. Early in the 

°^, ^^^ spring the Indians kill the muskrats by spearing 

muskratsi^° .' ^ o 

j-illeflP right through the huts. The fur is reddish brown 

and very soft. It is used for making hats. 
What species TllB foX, — The fur of the most common species 
1 "ui r o of this animal is a reddish color. The Arctic fox 

valuable fur ? 

has fur of a blue-white color, which is very valu- 
able. 
used (or ^he skins of the bear, buffalo, leopard and tiger 



are 



carriage-robes? are made into mats and carriage robes. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



FUR. 



1. ITS SOUECE. 

2. PBEPARATION. 

3. USES. 

4. SEAL. 

5. BEAVER. 



6. SABLE. 

7. ERMINE. 

8. MARTEN. 

9. OTTER. 

10. MUSKRAT. 



11. FOX. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING FUR. 



1. PICTURES OF ANIMALS NAMED. 

2. SAMPLES OF FUR, BEAVER, SABLE, &c. 

3. COLLARS, MUFFS, &c., MADE OF FUR. 




From what 
are feathers ob- 
taineJ ? 

Of what were 
pens formerly 
made? 



For what are 
geese-feat h e r s 
used ? 



What other 
birds supply 
stuffing for 
beds ?^ 



Where co 
e i d e rd u c k s 
live ? 



Source. — The plumage of various birds forms 
an important article of commerce. Not only do 
we use the feathers as articles of trimming and 
ornament, but for the stuffing of beds and pillows. 
The quills of feathers were formerly made into 
pens, but the extensive manufacture of steel pens 
has made this unnecessary at the present time. 

Tooth-picks are often made of the quills. 

Useful feathers. — Beds and pillows are stuffed 
with the feathers of geese. In many sections of 
Great Britain, and in our own country large nnm 
bers of geese are raised. 

Their feathers are picked several times a year. 
The feathers so picked are called "live geese 
feathers." 

Those taken from dead geese are not as valu- 
able. The feathers of the swan and duck are used 
for the same purpose. 

Eider-ducks. — These birds furnish a very valu- 
able article known as eider-down. In Scotland, 
Norway, Greenland and other cold countries, there 
are large flocks of these biids. They live on small 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 35 

islands and build nests very close together. The Where does 

down grows on the breast of the duck and after she the down grow? 

has laid her eggs, she plucks out the down to cover 

them. The collectors of this down watch the ducks 

and take away the down. Both the male and 

female bird continue the process of lining the nest, 

and covering the eggs with down, until their breasts ^°^ ^^^^ '^ 
,. , J .J r ii • i_ ^-r 1 • the down used? 

are entirely deprived oi this beautiful covering. 

The down is light and soft and is used for stuffing 

bed covering. It is especially adapted to this use 

as it gives warmth without weight. 

Eider-ducks in Iceland.— In Iceland these ^^^ ^^ 

ducks are very plentiful and at the season of nest- . , , , 

■^ ^ e 1 d e r-d u c k s 

building, many of the small islands and sections on build their 
the coast are almost impassable. The nests are so nests? 
close together that they form a solid flooring. The 
birds are quite large, the female being a brown What color 
color, and the male much lighter. ^'^^^^ *^"'=^'' 

Swan's-down. — The soft feathery substance 

W hat is 
found on the breast and under the wings of a swan swan's-down? 

is also much used, both as a stuffing for coverlets, 

and as dress trimming. For the latter purpose the For what is 

bird is killed and the skin taken off, and the down it used? 

left on the skin and cut in strips. It is very soft 

and pure white in the natural state, but is often 

dyed delicate colors. 

Ornamental feathers.— Feathers which are 
only adapted for ornamental purposes are obtained Nsme birds 
from the ostrich, marabout, peacock, pheasant, bird ^'°^^ P"™^g^ 

^ '^ IS used for or- 

of paradise, heron, osprey, egret and many other nament. 
birds. 

Th.e ostrich.. — The largest number of feathers 
used for ornament is furnished by the ostrich. This 



36 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

Describe the bird IS a native of Africa, and is very large, being 

ostrich. from six to eight feet in height. Its plumes are 

thick and valuable, varying in color from white 

,,,.,' through different shades of gray to jet black. The 
ers valuable? ° & y j 

pure white feathers are very scarce. Ostrich feath- 

How are they ers are used for head dresses, and trimming for 

used? hats, and dresses. They are dyed any desired 

color. 
What bird MarabOTlt feathers are procured from the mara- 

found in India , , . r t i • t-i i • i 

furnishes feath- bout-stork, a native oi India. 1 hey are white and 
ers? S^^y> '^iid very light and soft. 

Of what are They are used for trimmings and head-dresses. 

l^ideT ''^"'"'' Osprey and egret feathers are used for the 
plumes of military hats. 

handTomr b^rd Blpd of Paradlse feathers present a variety 
from which we of rich colors and are in demand as ornaments for 

obtain ornamen- hatS. 

ta eat ers. jj^^ deCOratioilS.— The wings of many small, 

, . , , . ^"^^ gayly colored birds are used to trim ladies' hats, 
birds wings°-'-^ 

used? ^nd sometimes the head, or the entire bird is used 

for the same purpose. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



FEATHERS. 

1. FROM WHAT OBTAINED. 6. THE OSTRICH. 

2. GEESE FEATHERS. 7. MARABOUT FEATHERS. 

3. EIDER-DUCKS. 8. OSPREY AND EGRET. 

4. SWAN'S-DOWN. 9. BIRD OF PARADISE. 

5. ORNAMENTAL FEATHERS. 10. HAT TRIMMINGS. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING FEATHERS. 



1. GEESE FEATHERS. 

2. PILLOW STUFFED WITH FEATHERS. 

3. QUILL PEN. 

4. QUILL TOOTH-PICK. 

5. EIDER-DOWN. 

6. STRIP OF SWAN'S DOWN. 

7. OSTRICH FEATHERS. 

8. MARABOUT FEATHERS. 

9. WINGS OF BIRDS 

10. PICTURES OF VARIOUS BIRDS. 




Where does 
tea grow ? 



How does the 
plant look ? 

How is tea 
raised ? 



When is the 
best tea galh • 
ered ? 

When is 
"imperial " tea 
picked. 

Which crop 
is the most 
valuable ? 



Appearance of plant —The tea-plant is cul- 
tivated in China and Japan, and in some parts of 
India. It is an evergreen shrub, its height varying 
from three to eight feet. Its leaves are numerous 
and grow on short thick stalks. The flowers are 
large and white. 

How cultivated. — The plants, are raised from 
seeds, which are planted in holes about four feet 
apart. The leaves are not gathered until the plant 
is three years old. 

Varieties of tea. — in China the first picking 
occurs in March, when the leaves are small. These 
leaves are considered the best, and supply the 
finest and most expensive variety of the class of 
tea known as green tea. A month later, a second 
crop of leaves is gathered, and these leaves furnish 
the kinds of tea known as ''imperial and "young 
hyson." 

Early in summer, the third and last collecting 
of leaves takes place. 

This gathering of leaves gives the black teas 
known as "souchong" and "bohea," much inferior 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 39 

to those already mentioned, as the leaves of this 
crop are large and coarse. 

Age of a plantation.— When the plants are How long are 
nine or ten years old they are cut down and a new the plants of 
plantation made. ^^'^^ 

Preparation of the leaves.— The leaves are 

picked by hand, one at a time, great care being How are the 

taken to have the hands of the pickers very clean, ''"a ves picked? 

In China, the nobility are supplied with tea from 

the first crop of leaves, and the gatherers of these 

leaves have to be extra particular. They are 

obliged to eat certain kinds of food, and to take a ., 

° ' the precautions 

bath two or three times a day. This great pre- required of 
caution is taken to prevent the leaves from injury pickers? 
and to preserve their fine flavor. 

The leaves are then dried. This is done by How is t h e 
throwing them into a shallow pan and roasting tea dried? 
them, stirring them all the time so that they will 
not scorch. They are then rolled in the hands, 
when they present the appearance of the tea sold 
in the stores, so familiar to us all. The tea is then How is t h e 
packed in chests, lined with a thin layer of lead to ^^a packed for 
exclude the air. exportation? 

These chests are then sent to various parts of the 
world and sold. 

Impurities in tea. — Tea is so generally used How is t e a 
now that it forms a very important article of com- ^ ° '"^ 1 1 m e s 

adulterated ? 

merce. It is often impure, owing to the dishonesty 
of the exporters. The usual method of cheating 
is either to mix dried leaves of other plants with 
the tea leaves, or to dye an inferior crop of leaves . , 

' ■' r' to deceive pur- 

vvith Prussian blue, a poisonous dye, which gives chasers? 



40 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

the leaves the rich coloring that distinguishes those 
of the first gathering. 
What country ConSUmption of tea.— The greatest quantity 
consumes the of tea is exported to Great Britain. The people ol 
most tea? that country are very fond of this drink and con- 

sume it at the rate of from two to two and a half 
Wh t is the po^nds to each person, annually. The United 
average iii the States also consume a large amount of tea each 
United States? year, averaging about a pound to each inhabitant. 
Tea as a drink.— Tea is prepared as a drink 
by steeping it in boiling water. In a few minutes 

,r the water is colored, and has the flavor of the 

used r 

leaves. It is sweetened with sugar and diluted 

with milk to suit the taste of the drinker. 

What effect Eflects of tea-drliiking.- The effect of tea 

has tea on the upon those consuming it, has long been a matter 

health? of discussion. It is exhilarating without being at 

Whichkmdis ^jj intoxicating. It causes the brain to grow active 

and induces wakefulness. It is therefore taken by 

persons who are obliged to write at night. The 

best green tea, being made of the first crop of 

leaves, which possess the strongest flavor, is the 

most injurious. It is very apt to cause extreme 

nervousness. Black tea is not so harmful, as it is 

made of the last collection of leaves, which are 

not so strongly flavored. 

inwhatcoun- Tea-drinking ill China —Tea is an article 

try is tea ot of great importance in the Chinese Empire. The 
great conse- inhabitants are very particular and only use the 
quence \)Qst varieties. At all the festivals and holiday 

celebrations, this drink is plentifully supplied and 

is partaken of by young and old. 

°^ It is served very hot in thin China cups, and 

Chinese drink , . . , ... 

.^, taken without milk or sugar. 





BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 






TEA. 


1. 


THE TEA-PLANT. 


5. IMPURE TEA. 


2. 


ITS CULTIVATION. 


6. USES OF TEA. 


3. 


KINDS OF TEA. 


7. EFFECTS OF ITS USE. 


4. 


PREPAEATION. 


8. TEA IN CHINA. 




OBJECTS TO AID 


IN TEACHING TEA. 




1. PICTURE OF TEA-PLANT. 




2. TEA-LEAVES. 






3. SAMPLES OF DRIED LEAVES. 




4. CUP OF TEA PREPARED AS A DRINK. 




Describe the 
coffee- tree. 



Describe the 
fruit. 



What part do 
we use ? 



How is coffee 
raised ? 



How old is 
the tree befoic 
it bears fruit ? 



GrrOWtll. — The cofifee-tree is an ever-green, 
growing in its wild state to be from twenty to thirty 
feet high. The cultivated tree is not allowed to 
grow more than eight or ten feet in height. The 
leaves are dark green, pointed in shape and the 
flowers are small and white, and grow in thick 
clusters. They have a fragrant smell. The fruit 
looks like a cherry. Each berry contains two seeds 
or beans as they are called, their flat sides pressed 
tightly together. The pulp that surrounds these 
seeds is sweet and pleasant to the taste. 

Cultivation. — Coffee is raised from seed which 
is sown in carefully prepared ground. The plants 
are kept in nurseries until they are a year old. 
Then a plantation is formed, the young trees being 
placed in rows a short distance apart. The first 
crop of fruit appears when the trees are three years 
old. The plants bear fruit for many months so 
that several crops can be gathered in a year. The 
plantation lasts twenty years or more. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 43 

Preparation. — The berries are placed in the 
sun and turned often until thoroughly dry. The 
pulp which surrounds the beans is removed by ^^"^^ '^ ""^ 

, . , , ,, ^, pulp removed V 

passing" the berries between wooden rollers. i he 

raw cofifee-seeds are light in color and hard and 

tough. It is necessary to roast them before they wi, at is done 

are fit for use. After this operation the beans are toiheheans? 

a brown color and have an aromatic odor. Coffee How is coffee 

is packed in large sacks for exportation. ^^"' '° othei 

countries ? 

Coflfee-producing countries- — C o ff e e 

thrives in a moist, warm climate. It grew first in ^, , ^ 

' • fc> Olwhatcoun- 

Arabia and Abyssinia. It is now also cultivated tries is coffee a 
in Brazil, India and the West Indies. Brazil pro- native? 
duces the largest amount of coffee, Rio Janeiro Name other 
being an important coffee market. The island ot '^o^-'tries sup- 

plvincf coffee. 

Java furnishes the next largest supply. Mocha 
coffee, from Arabia is considered to have the finest 
flavor. 

Adulteration of COfFee— Coffee is often Name sub- 
mixed with other substances, chicory being most stances used to 

, r I ii i- -t T^i • • 1 J adulterate cof- 

used for adulterating it. 1 his is a powder prepared 
from the roots of a wild plant, found in most parts 
of Europe. It is so much cheaper than coffee that 
dealers save money, when they cheat the public , l^ 

■' ' •' ^ done? 

by selling a mixture of chicory and coffee for pure 
coffee. Carrot and dandelion roots are sometimes 
used for the same purpose. 

Use of coffee. — Coffee is used as a drink and How is coffee 
large quantities are consumed in the United States, "^ed? 
Germany, England, France and most European What nations 

T, • 1 r 1 • 1 • • use it? 

countries. It is prepared tor drinking in a very 

^ ^ t) / Where are 

simple manner. The roasted beans are ground to ^j^^ countries 
a fine powder, over which boiling water is poured, named? 



44 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

After steeping awhile, a dark liquid is the result, 
possessing the flavor of the beans. Milk and sugar 
are added to suit the taste of the drinker. 

What effect Physlcal effects of coffee— Taken in moder- 

has coffee upon ation, coffee operates in a healthy manner on the 

those drinking system. It exhilarates and allays hunger. Taken 

' in excess its action is harmful, and it produces 

nervousness, indigestion and wakefulness. 

What pait of tJse of leaves-— In Arabia the leaves are used 

the tree is used in preparing a drink instead of the beans. They 

in Arabia? are dried and rolled and used as tea leaves are 

used. They have the taste of the beans. 

Story about coffee- — This story is told of the 
Relate an in- discovery of the power coffee possesses of stimulat- 
cident con- ing and causing wakefulness. The keeper of a 
nected with the number of goats was much annoyed by their play- 
discovery of fulness at night. After close watching he noticed 
coffee. 

that they were always wakeful after they had eaten 

many of the coffee plants so plentiful around them. 
An Arabian priest (Mohammedan) hearing this 
story, determined to make a drink of coffee and 
give it to the monks of his convent, who were often 
so sleepy that they would fall asleep at morning 
prayers. He did so and found it successful in keep- 
ing them awake during prayer time. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 

COFFEE. 

1. THE COFFEE-TREE. 5. ADULTERATION. 

2. CULTIVATION. 6. USE OF COFFEE. 

3. PREPARATION. 7. EFFECTS OF USE. 

4. WHERE IT GROWS. 8. STORY ABOUT COFFEE. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING COFFEE. 



1. PICTURE OF TREE. 

2. COFFEE BERRY AND BEANS. 

3. GROUND COFFEE. 

4. CUP OF COFFEE PREPARED AS A DRINK. 

5. MAPS OF COUNTRIES NAMED. 




Describe the 
cocoa-tree. 

What tree 
does it resem- 
ble? 

What shape 
is the fruit ? 



What part is 
used ? 



Where does 
the tree grow ? 



Do the trees 
need much at- 

t-nti 11? 



The cocoa tree- — ^^lie tree from which we ob- 
tain cocoa or chocolate is known by the names, 
cocoa, cacao and coco tree. It is handsome, from 
ten to twenty feet high, and is like a cherry-tree in 
appearance. 

Tlie fmit- — The tree has cucumber shaped 
fruit, consisting of a hard outer part, six or eight 
inches long, and a soft, white substance within. 
This soft pulp surrounds and protects seeds about 
as large as an almond. Many seeds are contained 
in each fruit. These seeds are the source of the 
cocoa or chocolate we use. 

Where cocoa grows — The cocoa tree can 
only be raised in warm countries. It is a native of 
Mexico, but is cultivated in South America, Africa 
and the West Indies. 

Cultivation- — The trees are extremely tender 
and require a great deal of care. To protect them 
from the hot rays of the sun, large plants with 
much foliage are planted between the rows of cocoa 
trees. These serve as a shield, and screen the 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 47 

plants from the glaring sunlight. How are they 

The flowers are red, and grow from all parts of protected? 
the tree. The tree is considered full-grown when 

about six \^ears old, but it commences to bear fruit , ^" . °^^ 

_ the fruit ap- 

in the third year. pear? 

Preparation of seeds— After the fruit is 

ripe, it is picked and the seeds taken out. They „ .1 

^ ' r J How are the 

are cleaned and spread out to dry in the warm seeds prepared? 

sunlight. To make the chocolate with which we 

are familiar, the seeds are ground into paste by 

pounding with heated stones or passing between 

hot rollers. It is then made into little cakes, mixed 

with sugar and spices. It is sold in this state. It 

is much used by confectioners in making candy, Por what is 

and by bakers in making fancy cakes. chocolate used ? 

Chocolate as a drink— To make the drink 
which is such a favorite with many people, the How is it 
chocolate cakes are ground and mixed with boiling Prepared for 

drinking? 

milk and water. 

It is delicious in taste but is so rich, owing to 

the oily matter contained in the cocoa-beans, that is chocolate 

it is not considered very healthy. Cocoa seeds are healthy? 

sometimes simply ground to a powder, and sold What makes 

in this state, unmixed with any spices. it so rich? 

This powder is made into the drink of the same ^^^f i)lainer 

, . ^ , . , .... drink is made 

name, cocoa, and is not nearly as rich and indi- <- , 

' ' •' ot cocoa I 

gestible as chocolate. 

Other "ways of using seeds.— In the coun- 

tries where the cocoa-tree grows, the seeds are , ", . -, 

° the seeds eaten? 

eaten as an article of food. 

Wha.t else is 
A kind of liquor is also obtained by the fermen- obtained from 

tation of the fruit. the seeds ? 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



CHOCOLATE. 

1. SOURCE. 3. CULTIVATION. 

2. DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT. 4. PREPARATION OF SEEDS. 

5. USE OF SEEDS. 

OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING CHOCOLATE. 



1. PICTURE OF TREE. 

2. SPECIMEN OF FRUIT. 

3. CUP OF CHOCOLATE PREPARED AS A DRINK. 

4. CANDY, CAKE, &c. CONTAINING CHOCOLATE. 

5. CAKE OF SOLID CHOCOLATE. 




Tlie plant. — Rice is a kind of grass, resembling' 
wheat in size and manner of growing. It grows to 
be about four feet high and has a long central stalk. 
At the top of the stalk, several stems are formed, 
each stem bearing a cluster of the rice. 

Where found. — This grass is found princi- 
pally in China and Japan, but it grows to some 
extent in all warm countries. Heat and moisture 
are necessary for its culture. The seeds are planted essary for its 



Describe rice. 



Where is rice 
found ? 

What are nec- 



and then the ground is flooded with water. 

Preparation for use.— When the grain is 
ripe it is cut down with a sickle, and bound into 
sheaves to dry. The rice is separated from the 
straw in mills, and the operation is called thresh- 
ing. 

The kernels of rice are inclosed in rough yellow 
husks and these are taken off by pounding them 
between two stones. At one time this process was 
performed by hand, but now there are machines 
for this purpose. In these machines there are re- 
'volving stones which rub off the husks without 



growth ? 



Wha t 
threshing? 



How are the 
husks removed? 



50 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

How do the crushing the rice. The kernels of rice then appear 
kernels look? round and pure white. 

Sometimes the husks are not removed but the 
rice is packed with them on, and sent to other 
countries, where the shelling is performed. 

Are all the TllB komels. — The kernels of rice vary in size 

rice kernels the ^^^^ niust be Sorted SO that all of the same size will 

be together. The large, perfect kernels are of the 

Which are ^ ^ , rj^, . ,. ••iij 

,, , , greatest value. i here is a medium size called 

the most valu- *> 

able? '^ middling rice r The broken kernels are ground 

into flour. 

Where is rice Importaiice of rice in China and India. 

of great import- — India and China produce immense quantities of 
ance? rice, and it forms the principal food of the inhab- 

itants of these countries. In the latter country it 

H o w is it . -11 -1 ^T-1 11 • 1 

eaten by the IS eaten With chop-sticks. 1 hcse are small, pointed 
Chinese? pieces of wood or ivory, with which the Chinese 

carry the rice to their mouths. It would be a slow 
process to any one not familiar with the method, 
but the Chinese are so dexterous in the use of the 
sticks that they can consume a large quantity of 
rice in a short time. 

General cultivation.— The warm countries 

Where is rice of Africa also furnish rice. It is thought it was 

cu tivate ^^^^ introduced into the West Indies by Columbus, 

on one of his early voyages. It is now extensively 

cultivated in North and South Carolina, and other 

southern states. Formerly large portions of these 

Are the states were swampy and apparently of little value. 

sou lern g This boggv ground was just the right soil for the 

of any use? fc>t>^ t> J fc> 

growth of rice, and now in place of the wet, worth- 
less regions, are found fields of this grass. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. , 5^ 

Difficulties in cultivation.— The cultivator 

of rice finds his chief difficult}- in the raids of the 
sparrows and rice-birdi,. These birds evidently what inter- 
like rice as well as the human race does, and they feres with the 
do great damage by biting off the heads of the growth of rice ? 
grass, just as it is ripening. The usual method of 
frightening these little thieves is to put a scare-crow 
in the field. A scare-crow is a post or rail dressed what is a 
in old clothes, so that it bears some resemblance scare-crow? 
to a man. It deceives the birds and keeps them 
at a respectful distance. 

Rice as an article of food.— Rice is a very 

healthy and nutritious article of food. It is usu- 
ally prepared for the table by boiling it in water. 
During this process, the kernels swell to more than 
double their original size. 

The rice-flour is made into cakes and there is a 
solution called rice-water, which is used for medi- 
cal purposes. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



RICE. 

1. DESCRIPTION OF 6. VARIETIES OF KERNELS. 

GRAIN. 7. RICE IN CHINA. 

2. HOW PLANTED. 8. GENERAL CULTIVATION. 

3. PREPARATION FOR USE. 9. RAIDS OF THE BIRDS. 

4. THRESHING. 10. RICE AS AN ARTICLE OF 

5. HUSKING. FOOD. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING RICE. 



1. SAMPLES OF THE GRAIN. 

2. RICE IN THE HUSKS. 

3. KERNELS OF RICE. 

4. RICE-FLOUR. 

5. CHOP-STICKS. 

6. MAPS OF COUNTRIES NAMED IN THIS 

ARTICLE. 



■'f'.f I / 




"Where foiind — Salt is a mineral substance 
which is obtained in different ways. It is found in 
a rocky state in salt-mines, or it is procured from 
the water of salt springs, seas, lakes and oceans. 

How obtained from water— When ob- 
tained from water, the salt is separated from the 
liquid by allowing the water to evaporate. The 
water is put in shallow vessels and exposed to the 
heat of the sun. In very warm countries, the sun's 
rays are sufficient to dry up the water and leave 
the salt in the bottom of the pans. The salt grows 
solid and crystallizes in cube-shapes. Where the 
climate is cool, artificial heat is used to cause 
evaporation. The salt is made finer and purer by 
boiling it. 

Salt-springs. — The principal salt-springs are 
in England, Prussia and the northern part of Italy. 
Russia derives much salt from salt lakes, and 
the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, 
obtain large quantities of the mineral from that 
sea. 



Where is salt 
found ? 

How is salt 
procured from 
salt water ? 



What shape 
are salt crystals.? 



Where are 
the most im- 
portant salt 
spring s ? 



54 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

Salt in the United States —Quantities of 

salt are obtained from springs in New Yor-k, Vir- 
ginia, Pennsylvania and Michigan. The most pro- 
What large (j^t^j-jye Q^e is near the city of Syracuse, in New 

spring in New . i i t • ,. 

York- York, ine salt is procured . by boring wells, two 

or three hundred feet deep, and the salt water is 

How is ihis ^ • j_ 2_ 1 1 r 

, ,„ pumped into tanks prepared for evaporatinsf pur- 

spring worked? '^ -^ '- '■ r s> sr 

poses. After the water has disappeared, the salt 
What are salt is allowed to drain for a couple of weeks, and is 
'"'"^^? then packed in barrels to be sold. 

Salt mines. — Salt mines are found in Russia, 
Where found? Germany and Poland. They consist of vast quan- 
Where are titles of rock-salt, extending hundreds of feet below 
these countries? the surtace of the earth. 

How is the They are entered by means of passages from the 
salt obtained ? surface called shafts, and many men are employed 
in zvorking the mines. 

They cut out pieces of the salt and load little 
cars with them, which carry the salt to the open 
air. 

How is rock- Preparation of rock-salt— Rock-salt is 

salt prepared treated very much in the same manner that salt 
for use? from springs is. It does not dissolve as easily and 

is often mixed with impure matter. This must be 
removed, and the salt boiled until it becomes the 
fine, white, glistening substance we are so familiar 
with. 

Where is The famous mine of Poland.— In Poland 

,, , there is a very wonderful mine, over a thousand 

there a remark- •' 

able mine? feet deep. It is divided into many floors, galleries 

and passages, all of solid salt. One of the divisions 

of this mine resembles a church so much that it is 

Describe the called St. Anthony's Chapel. The altar, pulpit 

*^ *P^ ' and statues are all of salt and are as perfect as if 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 55 

carved from marble. The royal families sometimes How are 
visit this mine, and the chapel is then brilliantly ''°y^.' ^^"^^^^^^ 

received, in it ? 

lighted up. The crystals of salt glisten beautifully 
and the scene is a dazzling one. 

In this same mine there is a very large room, 
called the reception room, and festivals are some- Describe the 
times celebrated here. Rows of seats are arranged reception room, 
around the room, and there is a raised platform of 
salt, for the musicians. On one of the upper floors 
of this wonderful mine there is a lake eighty feet jaJ^^^'^"^^ *^^ 
long and little rafts are employed to float noted 
visitors on its surface. 

One ot the rooms on the third floor contains a 
tomb made of salt, erected in memory of one of 
the Austrian Emperors. It is estimated that in is the mine 
order to visit every portion of this immense mine, very large? 
one must walk at least three hundred miles. 

Uses of salt. — Salt is absohitely necessary as an For what is 

article of food. It forms a part of most everything salt necessary? 

prepared for the table. It enters also into mixtures ^^^^ ^°^^ •' 
which are used as medicines. Meat is kept from 

spoiling by packing it in salt, when it will remain ^. ^. 

r^ o J r & purposes is it 

pure for a long time. used? 

Religions importance of salt.— The He- How is sait 

brews use salt in the observance of all their re- ^^^'^ ^y ^ ^ ^ 
ligious ceremonies. It is considered by them, an •'^"'^ 
emblem of purity. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



SALT. 

1. WHERE PROCURED. 6. THE GREAT MINE OF 

2. HOW OBTAINED. POLAND. 

3. PREPARATION FOR USE. 7. USES OF SALT. 

4. SALT-SPRINGS. 8. SALT AS AN EMBLEM 

5. SALT MINES. OF PURITY. 

OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING SALT. 



1. SPECIMENS OF ROCK-SALT. 

2. SALT-WATER. 

3. BAG OF REFINED SALT. 

4. PIECE OF MEAT PRESERVED IN SALT. 

5. MAPS OF ALL COUNTRIES NAMED IN 

THIS ARTICLE. 




From what obtained- — The principal source 
of sugar is the sugar-cane, a plant which grew first 
in Asia, but now grows in all warm regions. The 
plant consists of a thick, jointed stem, which varies 
in height from three to twelve feet. The stem is 
over an inch in diameter. The outside of it is thick 
and fibrous, and encloses a sweet, juicy substance. 
Flowers grow from the top of the stem, and from 
each joint there grows a leaf. 

Cultivation. — The sugar-cane is a perennial 
plant, that is, it does not require planting every 
season, but lives on from year to year. The canes 
of a plantation are arranged in rows. The planta- 
tions supply a good quality of sugar until the plants 
are from six to ten years old. 

A new plantation is then formed by cutting off 
the tops of the old canes and planting them. 

Where sugar-canes grow.— The best canes 

are raised in the West Indies. There are also 
large sugar plantations in Louisiana and other Gulf 
States. 



Where does 
s u g a r-c a n c 
grow ? 



Where is the 

juice stored? 

Where are 
the flowers ? 



How are the 
canes planted ? 



How is a new 
plantation 
made ? 

Where are 
the best sugar- 
canes raised ? 



58 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

Where are ProClirillg tho SUgaP.—In March the canes 
the West In- j. ^^q^^j-j ^^^^ ^^^^ leaves Stripped off. The 

dies? . ,, 

How is the Stems are crushed between iron rollers, and the 

juice obtained? juice is squeezed out and flows into vessels ready 

for it. It is then boiled and strained several times 

What IS raw ^^^ placed in shallow vessels to cool. It com- 

sugai ? ^ 

mences to crystallize as it cools. The sugar is 
now of a yellowish brown color, and is called 7'azu 
What is mo- or brown sugar, and the liquid that is still surround- 
labses? j^g j^ jg called molasses. 

How is sugar Th-G refilling process. — To make the raw 
refined? i i •. •. ■ li. i • j i. • 

sugar pure and white, it is melted again and certain 

What is loaf chemicals are mixed with it which cause all impure 

sugar? matter to separate from the sugar. The sugar 

hardens and is poured into molds. It is known as 

Granulated Joaf.gugar. Some of it is cut into cube shapes and 

sugar.'' ° .... 

sold in that way. The remainder is ground into 
Powdered graiiulatcd sugar, and when ground very fine it is 
sugar? called /^w^^r^^ sugar. 

What tree JVEaple-STlgar- — -A kind of sugar is obtained 
furnishes sugar? fj-Q^n the maple tree. In the spring-time a hole is 

How is it bored through the bark of the tree and a tube in- 
procured? serted. The sap flows out into vessels placed to 
catch it. It is then gathered, poured into large 

What is ma- , , ., , , r •, . f 

pie syrup? pans and boiled over a slow hre until it assumes the 

consistency of thin molasses, when it is called 
maple-syrup. To make sugar, the syrup is care- 
fully strained and then boiled again until it becomes 
thick, when it is poured into moulds and allowed 
to harden into cakes. Both maple sugar and maple 
How does syrup are of a rich brown color. Maple sugar is 

maple-sugar ygry swect and delicious to the taste, and is often 
taste ? 

made into little cakes and eaten as candy. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 59 

Other sources of sugar.— Sugar is also pro- What ve^c. 
cured from beets, and from the date-palm. France '^''-^ supplies 

sugar ? 

produces much beet sugar. It is obtained by crush- 
ing the juice out of the beets. It is boiled and cry- 
stallized much as cane-sugar is prepared. In India Wluitcountry 
sugar is obtained from a tree called the date-palm. "'■"■^^■'' ^ '^ 

^ ^ sugar? 

IVEolaSSes — After the sugar has been boiled vvhatcouniry 

and strained, it is placed where it will cool. The obtains sugar 

sugar forms into solid loaves, and the water in '^°'^ ^ 

which it has been boiled is by this time niu h , '^^^ , ^ ' 

•' _ lasses made .'' 

thickened by he mixture of the sugar with it. 
This liquid is drawn off and is called molasses. It How does it 
is dark and thick and is very sticky. It possesses °^ '^'^ ^^ ^ ■ 
a sweet taste and is much used in cooking. 

Uses of sugar- — Sugar is very extensively For what is 
used. It is needed in the preparation of many sugar used ? 
kinds of food. Fish, ham and fruits preserved in 
it will keep for a long time. Quantities of sugar 
are used in making candy. 

Effect on the health— Sugar is considered what effect 
healthy and has a fattening effect. The negroes does sugar have 
on the sugar-plantations of the South are said to on people? 
^row fat during the season when they gather the 
canes. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



SUGAR. 



1. PRINCIPAL SOURCE. 

2. CULTIVATION. 

3. WHERE IT GROWS. 

4. HOW PROG tJRED. 

5. REFINING. 



6. MAPLE SUGAR. 

7. BEET-SUGAR. 

8. MOLASSES. 

9. USES OF SUGAR. 

10. EFFECT OF USING IT. 



OBJECTS TO ASSIST IN TEACHING SUGAR. 



1. PIECE OF SUGAR-CANE. 

2. PICTURE OF SUGAR PLANTATION. 

3. SAMPLES OF RAW, LOAF, GRANULATED 

AND POWDERED SUGAR. 
i. MOLASSES. 
5. MAPLE SUGAR AND SYRUP. 




"Wlieat. — This grain is supposed to have grown 
first in Persia. It is now cultivated in ail temperate 
climates. 

Growth.. — It grows very rapidly, and presents 
a fine appearance. When ripe it is cut down and 
submitted to the processes of bolting and grinding. 
The former operation consists in separating the 
coarser from the finer portions of the wheat and the 
machine used is called a "bolter." The wheat is 
then ground into flour, and is used for making 
bread, rolls, biscuits, cake &c. It is pure white in 
color and very healthy. Macaroni and vermicelli 
are made of wheat paste. The best qualities are 
made in Naples, Italy, and the Italians are exceed- 
ingly fond of these articles. 

Wheat in America. — The introduction of 

wheat into America is said to be due to an accident. 
Rice was brought over and particles of wheat 
were found with it. It was planted an 1 spread 
rapidly and now a large surface of this henisphere 
is devoted to the culture of this grain. 



Of w h a 
country is 
wheat a native? 



How is it 
prepared for 
use ? 



For what is 
it used? 

What Italian 
city is first in 
the manufacture 
of macaroni ? 

How was 
wheat intro- 
duced into 
America ? 



62 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 



What grain is 
a native of 
America? 

By whom was 
it first cuhi- 
vated ? 

What name 
did they ^ive 
to it? 

What do we 
call it ? 

What Euro- 
pean country 
first raised il ? 

How is it 
cultivated ? 

What are 
some of the 
names applied 
to d i f f e rent 
varieties ? 

For what is 
Indian meal 
used? 

How is corn 
prepared as an 
article of food ? 



Where 
oats grow ? 



do 



What is oat- 
meal ? 

For what is 
barley used ? 



Indian corn. — Unlike wheat, this grain is a 
native product of America and was called Indian 
Corn by the Spaniards when they came to this 
country, because they thought the new world was 
a part of India. The natives or Indians called it 
inahis and it is now often called maize, the English 
translation of their word. Columbus took samples 
of the corn back to Spain after his discovery of 
America, and Spain then cultivated this grain and it 
was soon introduced into other portions of Europe. 
A field of maize presents a beautiful appearance. 
Its culture requires considerable care. It is planted 
in hills, and the soil must be of good quality and 
free from weeds. The kernels differ somewhat in 
shape and size and the names white-corny sweet- 
corn, pop-corji. &c., have been given to the various 
kinds. 

Ground into meal, Indian corn is made into bread, 
biscuits, rolls &c. It is also used for fattening 
poultry and feeding animals. 

Sweet corn, boiled on the cob is used as an arti- 
cle of food. Hominy a popular breakfast dish is a 
preparation of maize. 

Oats are cultivated in more northern climates. 
They are used more as food for animals than for 
the human race. 

Oatmeal and other preparations of this grain are 
healthy breakfast relishes. 

Barley also grows in a cooler climate than wheat. 
It is not very important as an article of food, but is 
used extensively in making ale, porter and beer. 

The barley is steeped in water until it sprouts 
then it is dried quickly in a kiln. It is then called 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 63 

malt 2iX\A is the principal ingredient in the above Whatismalt? 
named drinks. 

Rye is cultivated in Europe and in this country. what liquor 

A ki'nd of coarse bread is made of the rye meal, is made of rye? 
Rye is used in making whiskey. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 

USEFUL GRAINS. 

1. WHEAT. 5. USES. 

2. USES. 6. OATS. 

3. INDIAN COEN. 7. BARLEY. 

4. EARLY HISTORY. 8. RYE. 

OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING USEFUL GRAINS 



1. SAMPLES OF WHEAT, CORN, OATS, BARLEY 

AND RYE. 

2. WHEAT FLOUR. 

3. BREAD, ROLLS &c. MADE OF WHEAT FLOUR. 

4. CORN MEAL. 

5. SPECIMENS OF POP-CORN, SWEET CORN &c. 




Th-G tre6- — The clove tree is a native of the 
Spice Islands and is now cultivated in the West 
Indies and other tropical countries. It is beautiful 
in appearance, resembling the laurel-tree and 
grows to a height of from fifteen to forty feet. The 
leaves are large and oblong, the flowers small and 
dark red. The fruit resembles an olive in shape, 
and is the same color as the flowers. It is dried 
and used to some extent being known in commerce 
by the name "mother cloves." 

Cloves- — The cloves as used by us for flavoring 
consist of the unopened flower buds. They are 
gathered from the tree in a green state and dried 
thoroughly, first by artificial heat, then by the 
sun's rays. The buds become of a dark brown 
color, and look very much like nails. Because of 
this resemblance, the name cloves is given to chem, 
the word clove being derived from the French word 
clou which means a nail. 

The little ball which seems to form the head of 



Where do 
cloves grow ? 

Describe the 
clove-tree. 



What is the 
fruit called ? 

What are 
cloves ? 

How are they 
prepared for 
use? 



What is the 
name derived 
from ? 



^ TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

How can you the nail is in reality composed of the petals of the 

prove that a f^Q^g^^ j^^d if you soak a clove in water for a while, 

clove is a flow- i ,- i ii 

er-bud? Y^^ "^'^^ ^^^ ^^^ petals soften and unroll. 

What proper- ^Jses of cloVes— Cloves possess a spicy, 

ties have clovesr 

For what are Siting taste and strong, aromatic odor. They are 

they used? used for flavoring food, particularly pies, puddings, 
cakes and preserves. 

W^hat is oil Qll of cloveS- — By distilling the cloves in 

of cloves? water, an oil rs obtained which is found useful in 

How is it medicine, 

used? It is also employed to scent soap for toilet use. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



CLOVES. 

1. THE CLOVE-TREE. 3. PREPARATION. 

2. THE BUDS. 4. USES. 

5. OIL OF CLOVES. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING CLOVES. 



1. PICTURE OF CLOVE-TREE, 

2. SAMPLE OF CLOVES. 

3. ARTICLE OF FOOD FLAVORED WITH CLOVES. 

4. BOTTLE OF OIL OF CLOVES. 




Where does 
pepper grow ? 



Describe the 
plant. 



What color 
and size are the 
berries ? 

When is the 
fruit gathered ? 

How do the 
berries look 
when dry ? 

What is black 
pepper ? 



The plant- — Pepper is a native of the East 
Indies, but is now cultivated in many tropical 
countries. It grows wild in China and India. 

It is a climbing shrub, with smooth, spongy- 
stems, and thick, ivy-shaped leaves. It is trained 
over poles and supports, and increased in size by 
frequent cutting of slips. The plant grows ten or 
twelve feet high. In three or four years the fruit 
appears. The flowers are small and white. The 
fruit is round and red when ripe, and about the 
size of a pea. 

Preparation. — Just before the fruit is ripe, it is 
gathered and dried in the sun. If allowed to fully 
ripen before being picked it loses much of its pun- 
gent taste. As the berries dry, they become black 
and wrinkled. Reduced to a powder, they form 
the ''black pepper" of commerce. Black and white 
pepper are procured from the same plant. White 
pepper is obtained from the seeds of the berries. 
They are removed from the pulp of the fruit and 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 69 

bleached. They are in reality not white, but light How is white 

gray in color. Black pepper is much more spicy P ^ P P ^ «■ °b. 

than the white variety. ^'^\,{c\. vari- 

Uses- — No spice is so universally liked as pep- ^^^ "^ ^^^ "^"''^ 

per. It is used by all nations in cooking and pick- what ' th 

ling. It is employed somewhat in medicine. An common use of 

ointment prepared from this spice is used as a pepper? 

remedy for ringworm. ^^ ^^^^ ^^ 

^ ^ it used ? 

Effects of pepper on the health —As a how does 

flavoring for food, in small quantities, pepper acts P^PP^"" ^^^ o" 
as a pleasant stimulant. When very much of it is 
taken, its effects are irritating and injurious. 

Cayenne pepper-— A variety of pepper is From where 

shipped from Cayenne in South America, which is ^" ^^ obtain 

particularly pungent and is greatly used in a green ^y^""^ P^P" 

state for pickling. The berries are bright red For what is 

when ripe. it used? 



w was 



Early use of pepper-- As a medicine, pep- H o 

per was used in very ancient times. pepper used in 

T 1 -111 • ^ . early times? 

In the middle ages it was known as a spice, but when was it 

was so costly that only very wealthy people could employed as a 
use it. A gift of a few pounds of pepper was con- spice? 
sidered a very generous offering. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



PEPPER. 

1. THE PLANT. 4. EFFECTS ON THE 

2. PREPARATION. SYSTEM. 

3. USES. 5. VARIETIES OF PEPPER. 

6. PEPPER IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 

OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING PEPPER. 



1. SPECIMENS OF PEPPER BERRY. 

2. SAMPLES OF GROUND PEPPER. 




Source. — It would be difficult to name a sub- 
stance more necessary to the comfort of mankind 
than wood. For this material we are indebted to 
the forest trees which grow so plentifully in many 
parts of the world. The trunks of these wonderful 
products of nature represent beauty, strength and 
wealth. To name all the different species of trees 
which supply the great demand for wood, is impos- 
sible within the limits of this article, but we will 
consider a few of the most common ones. 

The Oak. — This tree takes precedence of all 
others for usefulness. The wood it furnishes is 
very tough and strong. It is used for making arti- 
cles that will be subjected to great weight or rough 
usage. It is particularly adapted to ship-building 
and quantities are used for this purpose. The 
timber is a brownish color and is very ornamental. 
It is used for furniture and for the decoration of 
buildings. The oak grows in England and in the 
United States, 



From what is 
wood obtained ? 

What por- 
tions of the 
trees are used 
as lumber ? 



What is the 
most useful 
tree ? 

What is oak 
used for ? 



What color is 
it? 

Where does 
the oak tree 
grow ? 



72 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

What color is "Wallltlt. — Much of the furniture in use at the 

walnut wood? present time is made of the timber of the black 

walnut tree. This tree is plentiful in most parts of 

the world. The wood is strong and handsome. A 

What is hick, common species of the tree, known as white walnut 

ory? or hickory, yields a very useful plain wood. 

Describe the Mahogaiiy.— The mahogany tree grows to an 
mahogany tree, immense size. Its trunk is from iive to six feet in 
diameter, and the foliage is very thick. It is a 
native of the West Indies. The wood is very valu- 
able, it is brown in color, shading from a yellowish 
hue to dark reddish-brown, and is beautifully 
veined. The trees are so large and the climate so 
hot, that it is a difficult task to procure the wood. 
The logs are drawn by oxen to the nearest stream 
and floated to the docks from which they are 
shipped to other countries. The wood is used for 
making furniture and articles made of it are highly 
polished and very handsome. 



What color is 
this wood ? 



pianos ? 



What wood iiose-"WOOd. — Vast quantities of this wood are 

nsed or ^^^^ f^j. flaking pianos. The rose-wood tree 

grows in the tropics. The timber is very hard and 

has a dark rich color. It receives its name from 

y IS 1 so ^-j^g pg^-^jj^j. Q^Qj. j|- possesses, somewhat like that 

of a rose. 

Name a very Pine. — This wood is Very plentiful and ranks 
useful wood. next to the oak in usefulness. The trees grow in 

Where does many parts of the world, those found in cold coun- 

it abound? tries like Russia, Norway and Sweden, yielding 

the best timber. The white pine of our own coun- 

For wha\ is . '■ 

it used? ^^y *^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ producing wood much in demand 

for house building and for the masts of vessels. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 73 



Maple. — Very handsome articles are made of Whaicanyou 

this wood. It is beautifully grained and marked, sayotemape 

^ ° tree? 

The tree is American in origin. 

The Chestnut tree.— This tree grows abun- ^vhatcanyou 
dantly in this country and is found also in the say of the chest- 
southern part of Europe. The wood is very dur- nut tree? 
able and is much used for railings, posts and 
strong household furniture. 

Jj g s c r 1 DC 

Ebony. — This wood is very dark in color, the ^ , 
most valuable being black. The ebony tree is 
found in Madagascar and Ceylon. The timber can 
be highly polished and is used for decorating arti- Where does 

1 J r ii- 1 • J r 1 /-ii • i J the tree grow ? 

cies made of other kmds of wood. Objects made 
entirely of ebony are very expensive. 

Cedar. — A species of the cedar tree called the ^j^^^ ^^^^ 
"cedar of Lebanon," is mentioned in the Bible, was used many 
The wood at that time was used for building relig- centuries ago ? 
ious temples. Varieties of this tree are found in 
many parts of the world. The cedar used in this Describe the 
country is from the West Indies and the Southern 
States. The color is reddish, and the wood 
although strong, is not heavy. It is used for mak- 
ing furniture, particularly chests and wardrobes in ^ , . 

^. , , ' For what is 

which clothes are packed away as moths cannot it used now? 
eat through it. Row-boats made of it are grace- 
ful and easy to manage. Lead-pencils are made of 
this wood. 

Fuel. — Besides its importance in building and 
the manufacture of furniture, wood is necessary as What great 

/-IT • 1 1 • - -1 want does wood 

fuel. In some regions, where coal is not easily , p 

obtained, it is the only fuel used. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



1. SOURCE, 

2. OAK. 

3. WALNUT. 

4. MAHOGANY. 

5. ROSEWOOD. 



W^OOD 

6. PINE. 

7. MAPLE. 

8. CHESTNUT. 

9. EBONY. 
10. CEDAR. 

11. WOOD AS FUEL. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING WOOD. 



1. PICTURES OF VARIOUS TREES. 

2. SAMPLES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD. 

3. ARTICLES MADE OF WOOD. 




The cork tree. — Cork is obtained from a tree 
which is very much like the oak in appearance. 
The trees are allowed to grow to be from ten to 
fifteen years old before any cork is collected. The 
cork is the outside surface of the trunks of the 
trees, that is, the bark. Cork trees sometimes live 
to be one hundred and fifty years old. They grow 
in Spain, Italy and Portugal. 

How the cork is procured— The bark is 

cut into in a lengthwise manner and stripped off in 
sheets. In a year the new bark forms and the 
trees appear as they did at first. The process of 
removing the bark is repeated every few years, the 
quality and quantity of cork being improved at 
each operation. The cork is collected in July and 
August. 

How the bark is treated— The sheets of 

bark are soaked in water and heavy weights placed 
on them to prevent their rolling up. When they 
are dry they are ready for use. 



From what is 
cork obtained ? 



Where does 
the tree grow ? 



What part ot 
the tree is used ? 



How is the 
cork obtained? 



How long do 
the trees live ? 



What is done 
to the bark ? 



76 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

At first these sheets of bark were cut into corks 
by hand, no instrument being used but a knife. 
° ^ , ^."^^ Now all the cutting^ is done by machinery. The 

corks for bottles ^ • i , 

made? sheets are divided into narrow strips, then these 

strips are cut into pieces the right length and 

„,, . rounded into corks such as are used for bottles. 

What nation 

manufactures The French are more expert in the manufacture of 

the best corks? corks than any other nation. 

Uses of cork- --Most of the cork obtained is 
used for making stoppers for bottles. It is so elas- 
tic that after being pressed tightly into the neck ol 

What is cork , , . ^,, , , 

used for? ^ bottle, it fills the space so that no air can pass in, 

nor can the contents of the bottle escape. 

Cork is also used for the soles of slippers and 
shoes. 
Why 1 s 1 1 It is so light that it floats easily on the surface of 

adapted to mak- ° . i-^ •. • 

ing life-prcser- ^he Water, and because it possesses this quality it is 
vers and life- used for life-presefvers and in the construction ol 
boats? life-boats. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



CORK. 

1. THE COEK-TREE. 3. HOW TREATED. 

2. HOW THE CORK IS PROCURED. 4. USES. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING CORK. 



1. PICTURE OF TREE. 

2. PIECE OF BARK. 

3. CORKS FOR BOTTLES. 

4. LIFE-PRESERVER OR PICTURE OF ONE. 

5. CORK SOLE. 

6. PICTURE OF LIFE-BOAT. 




Of what is 
glass made ? 

Describe the 
process of 
manufacture. 



Wliat tools do 
the workman 
use? 



Is glass easily 
broken ? 



Manufacture. — Glass is composed of a mixture 
of fine sand with soda, potash or some such 
material. Such substances are called alkalies and 
have a caustic or burning effect upon anything with 
which they are mixed. The sand and alklai are 
placed in a large furnace the shape of a cone. The 
fire is in the center and the melting pots are placed 
in a circle around it. 

Strong heat is applied and soon the mixture is 
reduced to a soft, sticky mass. This must be formed 
into the desired articles while it is hot. 

G-laSS blowing. — The workmen use long iron 
pipes with which they dip out portions of the melted 
glass. They then blow it into molds, the shape of 
the bottles, vases etc., they wish to make. When 
dry these articles are very brittle. A skillful work- 
man, from a small bubble of the hot glass, can by 
dexterous turns of the pipe, form very beautiful and 
elaborate ornaments. Besides the pipe, the work- 
man uses shears and tongs, and an iron rod. 

Kinds of glass. — The varieties of glass now in 
use are made by slight changes in the manner of 
manufacturing. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 79 

Flint glass. — Sometimes powdered flint is used What is flint 
instead of sand. Glass made from this material is 8 ass? 
very clear and transparent. It is used for eye- ^° ^'^^^ P^^' 
glasses and optical instruments, also for imitating adapted - 
precious stones. 

Plate glass. — is used for very large windows ^^ ^'^^* ^""^ 
such as are found in stores and public buildings. It . , 

'^ ° window-panes 

is made by spreading the melted glass upon a flat niade? 
plate of copper and making it level with a heavy 
roller. When it is cold it is polished with putty 
and emery until it is smooth. 

This glass is very expensive. It is used in the 
manufacture of mirrors. 



How is this 
glass prepared? 



What is 
annealing ? 
What use 



Annealing. — For the latter purpose, the glass 
undergoes a process called annealing. It is placed 
so near the fire that it will become warmed through ,„;ide of an 
without melting. It is then allowed to cool very neaied glass ? 
slowly. This operation prevents the glass from What metal is 
breaking easily. One side of the glass is then cov- ,' . 

^ ■' ° lacturing ni i r- 

ered with quicksilver. rors? 

It will then reflect objects in front of it and is 
made into mirrors. 

CrOWn-fiClass. — This is the most common kind ^^^' '*^ ^°'"" 

- , T, 1 "/- -1 . It , m o n g 1 a s s 

of glass. It used for wmdow-panes, tumblers and j,^]!^^^ 
dishes. 

What is made 

Bottle-glass.— IS made of the old melted glass of refuse glass ? 
that is left after different articles have been made. 
It is of a very poor quality and is dark in color. 

Enamel. — This is glass which is white like What sub- 
milk, and opaque. Oxyd of tin is added to the '^^"f '^p^'"'' 

a milky hue to 

melted glass and gives it this color. Watch dials glass? 
are made of it, and ornaments. 



8o TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 



What nation HistOry Of glaSS. — The Egyptians manufac- 
first manufac- ^^^^ed glass thousands of years ago, and from it 

tured glass ? 1,1 , . , , . , 

made beads and imitation gems, also curious urns 
and drinking vessels. Some of these can now be 
seen in museums. 

The first country of Europe to engage in the 

manufacture of glass was Italy. From there it was 

introduced into England, and later by the English 

into the United States. 

What coun- A Very pure sand is needed and this is not plenti- 

t r y furnishes (^^\ Xhg finest is found in Massachusetts in the 

the best sand ? ^ i\/r j. • 

Green Mountains. 

Importance of glass.— We have only to look 

around us to realize what a useful article glass is. 

Name all ihc Mirrors, window-panes, vases and articles for the 

articles you can, table formed of this material constantly meet our 

that are made yig^y Por many ccnturies glass was very expen- 

^ ^^^ sive and only royal families could afford articles 

Is glass ex- made of it. It is now so plentiful and cheap that 

pensive ? all may possess it in some form. 

Discovery of glass-making.— The follow- 
ing story has been handed down to us from former 
generations in relation to the art of making glass. 
Its truth cannot be vouched for, however. 

A party of pirates landed on the shore, some- 
Repeat t h e where in the northern part of Africa. They built a 
story told of the large fire of sea- weed with which to cook their 
origin of glass? ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ j^^j bumed out, they found 

pieces of glass in the ashes. The sandy ground 
upon which the fire had been built, and the alkali 
in the sea-weed had united and the heat of the fire 
had converted them into glass. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



GLASS. 



1. MANUFACTUBE. 

2. FLINT-GLASS. 

3. PLATE-GLASS. 

4. ANNEALING. 

5. BOTTLE-GLASS. 



6. ENAMEL. 

7. HISTOEY OF GLASS. 

8. USES OF GLASS. 

9. SUPPOSED ORIGIN OF 

GLASS-MAKING. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING GLASS. 



1. SPECIMENS OF SAND, FLINT, POTASH, 

SODA, &c. 

2. OBJECTS MADE OF GLASS, AS VASE, BOTTLE, 

BEADS, ETC. 

3. PIECE OF LOOKING GLASS. 

4. WATCH-DIAL. (ENAMEL.) 




What is 
sponge ? 



Where is it 
found ? 



What are tlie 
qualities of 
sponge ? 

Describe its 
appearance. 



How is food 
supplied ? 



Name some 
of the forms 
sponge as- 
sumes ? 



Origin- — For ^ long time sponge was supposed 
to be of vegetable origin but it is now known to be 
an animal of the lowest order. The animals are at- 
tached to rocks, shells and other hard substances 
belovv the water. 

Appearance. — Sponge is a very soft, elastic 
substance, consisting of a horny framework, made up 
of innumerable small tubes, branching from larger 
ones which grow still larger near the center of the 
sponge. These tubes all have openings at the sur- 
face of the sponge and are filled throughout their 
length with a jelly-like, fleshy substance. Through 
the pores at the end of the small tubes the sponge 
takes in water, which passes through the tubes and 
finally out again through the openings of the large 
tubes. The nourishment for the sponge is thus 
supplied, the food necessary for the growth of the 
animal being left by the water. Sponges are of 
various shapes, some being almost spherical, others 
cone-shaped, cylindrical, cup-shaped or bottle- 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 83 

shaped. Some have very coarse fibres, others are 
fine as thread. 

From what countries obtained— The ^^°^^ ^hai 

finest sponges are from the waters on the coast of ^"""^""y ^° ^''^" 
/- T r-.i-i,/-,. , finest sponges 

Greece. In some of the islands of this country the come? 

people are trained when very young to dive for 

Fr 1 • ,1 -Mr ^^ What seas 

ine sponges are found in the JMediter- f„rnish o ? 

ranean and Red Seas and on the coast of Florida 

Where are 

and the West Indies. tl^,^^ 3,^, P 

Preparation for use- — When first removed Where are 
from thj water, the sponges are slimy and sticky ^^^ West 
owing to the jelly-like matter in the tubes. There 

,.,,,... , ,, How do the 

IS also mineral matter in the sponges, such as small . 1 

'^ ° ' sponges feel 

stones and shells. The sponges are buried in the when first 

sand for a few days, when the animal matter be- gathered? 

comes putrid and can be easily washed out. The How are they 

mineral substances are reduced to a powder by ^^^^ ^ 

heating the sponges and can then be removed with- °^ ^^^ 

^ A sponges pre- 

out trouble. After thorough washing and soaking, pa^ed for ex- 

the sponges are dried and sent to other countries. port? 

Uses of sponge — As an article for the bath. How is 
sponge is familiar to all. It is of great use to phy- sponge used? 
sicians and chemists. 

The French have taken advantage of the felting What use is 
properties of sponge and make it into a kind of '"^'^^ ° P°"^^ 

1^1 1-1.1 r .1 r 1 • r bv the French : 

cloth whicli they use lor the foundation of carpets 
and rugs. Sponge is sometimes used to stuff cush- 
ions and furniture. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



SPONGE. 



1. NATURE OF SPONGE. 

2. APPEARANCE. 

3. HABITS OF NOURISH- 

MENT. 



4. COUNTRIES FURNISH- 

ING IT. 

5. PREPARATION FOR USE. 

6. USES. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING SPONGE. 



1. SPONGES OF VARIOUS DEGREES OF FINENESS. 

2. MAPS OF SEAS AND COUNTRIES NAMED. 




From "what source.— The large teeth or 
tusks of the elephant, walrus and hippopotamus fur- 
nish a hard, bony material which is called ivory. 
The largest supply and finest quality of this article 
comes from Africa. Much of the ivory in use is 
obtained from collections of bones and tusks found 
in Asia, which are supposed to be the remains of a 
species of animals, immensely large, now no longer 
in existence. The bones and tusks so found are 
usually imbedded firmly in the soil and seem to be 
a part of it. Many valuable tusks are often found 
together, some weighing over one hundred-and- 
eighty pounds, and as much as ten feet in length. 
The tusks obtained by hunting the elephants of 
Africa and India are much smaller than those men- 
tioned, the weight of a tusk sometimes being fifty 
or sixty pounds, but usually much less. 

Appearanceof Ivory.— The ivory procured 
from elephants is a hard, white substance, fine in 
texture and showinc^ when examined a fine network 



What is 
ivory? 



Where is the 
best ivory ob- 
tained ? 



Where do fos. 
sils furnish 
ivory? 



Describe 
these tusks. 



What is the 
usual weight of 
a task ? 

Describe the 
appearance o t 
ivory. 



86 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

What are its composed of Curved lines crossing and interlacing 
qualities? each other. Ivory is somewhat elastic and can be 

made still more flexible by placing it in a solution 
of phosphoric acid. It then becomes semi-trans- 
parent. 

Namearticles UseS OflVOry.— Large quantities of this sub- 
made of ivory, stance are used for knife-handles, billiard balls, 
chessmen, portions of games and toys. The keys 
of pianos and parts of other musical instruments are 
What people made of ivory. France manufactures beautiful 
are the finest articles out of this material, but the Chinese are 

wor eis in ^[^g jg^ding Workmen in this art. They carve it 
ivory? '^ ... 

with the utmost delicacy, and make mmiature 

chapels, gods, images, vases and ornaments of it, 
the ivory often presenting a lace like appearance. 
How is ivory It is often used as a background for delicate paint- 
used by artists ? jj^gg aiijj portraits. Ivory obtained from the hippo- 
potamus is very white and not grained like the ele- 
What kind of phant ivory. It is used by dentists for making arti- 
ivory do den- fjcial teeth. The various uses of ivory make it a 
tistsuse.'' substance of great importance and the demand 

What about ^'^^ ^^ ^^ Constantly increasing. Thousands of 
the demand for elephants are slaughtered every year to meet this 
ivory? demand. 

What book Early history of ivory.— The value and 

mentions ivory? beauty of ivory Were appreciated in very early 

What nation ^i^'i^GS. It is frequently spoken of in the Bible. The 

made statues of Greeks made statues of it, one in particular, repre- 

this material ? senting the Olympian Jupiter, being of wondrous 

beauty, and showing the great skill of the sculptor 

Phidias. The Romans used ivory in quantities and 

by them it was introduced into other portions of 

Europe. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 87 

Vegetable ivory- — This substance which Whatisvege 
closely resembles animal ivory in appearance, is ^^ ^ '^""^^ 
the fruit of a tree of the palm species, growing in 
Peru and other sections of South America. The Describe the 
tree is very beautiful, having light green, pointed tree furnishing 
leaves of great size. In general appearance they *^' '■ 

resemble tufts of immense ostrich feathers. The 
flowers grow in thick clusters. The fruit is as large what part of 
as a man's head, and contains many nuts the size the tree is used? 
of a hen's egg. The kernels of these nuts furnish 
the hard, white substance known as vegetable 
ivory. It is used for making buttons, umbrella and ^f vegetable 
cane handles and articles of jewelry. ivory? 







BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 






IVORY. 

1 


1, 


SOURCE. 4. CHINESE WORK IN IVORY.' 


2. 


APPEARANCE. 5. EARLY USE OF IVORY. 


3. 


USES. 


6. VEGETABLE IVORY. 

7. ITS USES. 




OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING IVORY. 




1. 


ELEPHANT'S TUSK. 




2. 


OBJECTS MADE OF IVORY. 




3. 


PICTURE OF PALM, PRODUCING 
VEGETABLE IVORY. 




4. 


BUTTONS &c. MADE OF IT. 




Manilfactlire. — Bricks are made of clay, 
which is abundant in many localities. This clay 
contains iron, lime and potash. It is dug up and 
exposed to the air for quite along time, and is then 
mixed with water until it makes a thick paste. 
Formerly this was done with a spade and the bricks 
were placed in little wooden molds by hand, but 
now the whole process of brick-making is generally 
performed by machinery. The machines are quite 
complicated and many skilled workmen are needed 
to attend to them. When the clay is finally 
removed from the machines, it is in the form of 
bricks which are moist and are called green bricks. 
A single brick-making machine, run by steam- 
power, turns out from twenty to thirty thousand 
bricks a day. 

Th.e kilns. — The green bricks are dried by 
gentle heat, sometimes the heat of the sun being 
sufficient. The final process is the baking of the 
bricks in immense ovens, called kilns. It takes 
from two to seven days to bake ox fire bricks. 



Of what are 
bricks made? 

Of what is 
clay composed ? 



How are tht 
bricks made ? 



What are 
green bricks ? 



How are the 
bricks dried ? 

W li a t are 
kilns? 

How long 
does it take to 
fire bricks ? 



90 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

What affects The COlOP ofbrlcks.— After the baking, the 

the color of 

bricks? bncKs assLime various shades, due to the amount of 

iron contained in the clay. If there is much iron in 
the clay, the bricks will become red when fired ; if 
only a small proportion of iron is present, the bricks 
are cj'eani colored. 
What is terra TePraCotta. — Very fine clay is sometimes 

cotta? made into ornamental bricks of various shapes, 

known by the general name of terra cotta. This 
material is of a delicate red color and adds greatly 
to the appearance of a building. Many architects 

For what is . . & / 

it used? use it in place of the stone and marble decorations 

formerly the fashion. Terra cotta is also used for 

urns and statues. 

What nations Eaplj Mstory of bricks.— The inhabitants 

first engaged in of Egypt, Babylon and Assyria were the first to 

brick manufac- ^ , i • i t-> i i \ r 

P manufacture bricks. Rough vessels and fragments 

of brick tombs have been found, fully three thous- 
and years old. Bricks at that time were probably 
dried in the sun, as the building of kilns was intro- 
Of what ma- ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^j^ j^^^j. period. The bricks of 

tenals did they 

make the ancient times were made of clay mixed with grass, 

bricks? Qj. straw. In India, the walls of old towns are 

made of brick, and the ruins of great buildings in 

Rome are of the same material. The Romans 

What nation introduced the art of brick-making into England. 

introduced this Various portions of the United States furnish clay, 

industry into .,.,. 

England? ^"*^ ^^e manufacture of bricks is an important in- 

dustry. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 9I 

XJses, — The bricks are used for building houses, ^'°^ "'la^ arc 

111-1 111 I'ricks used? 

churches, bridges, towers, pavements, walls, arches, 

cisterns, vats, etc. They are cemented together ... 

"^ ° are brjcks ce- 

with mortar, which is made of sand and lime. men ted to- 

The mixture of which bricks are made is itself S^tiei. 

1 r , • in .1 What ai tides 

used for makmg coarse vessels, rlower-pots and , ^ , 

° ^ are made 01 tlie 

jars. clay mixture? 





BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 




BRICKS. 


1. 


MANUFACTURE. 4. TEERA COTTA. 


2. 


THE KILNS. 5. USES OF TERRA COTTA. 


3. 


APPEARANCE OF BRICKS. 6. HISTORY OF BRICKS. 




7. USES OF BRICKS. 




OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING BRICKS. 




1. SAMPLES OF CLAY. 




2. BRICKS. 




3. SPECIMEN OF TERRA COTTA. 




4. FLOWER-POT, JAR &c. MADE OF BRICK. 




Source. — India rubber is obtained from larg^e 
trees, which grow in India, Central America, Mexi- 
co, and Brazil. The largest quantity of rubber 
comes from the latter country in the region of 
the Amazon river. 

How procured. — A hole is bored in the trunk 
of the tree, and a thick juice of a yellowish white 
color flows out. If kept in a bottle, closely corked, 
it retains its fluid state, but if exposed to the air 
soon hardens. 

Preparation for the market.— The juice is 

placed in molds of clay and heated over a wood fire 
so as to hasten the hardening process. The molds 
are in various shapes and when heated sufficiently 
they are broken and the rubber removed. The 
latter is in the form of the molds and has assumed 
a dark color from the action of the smoke of the 
wood fire. India rubber in this form is exported to 
other countries. 

Qualities of rubber.— This substance is also 
known by the na.mes ca(niUko7(c and ^um-elastic. As 



From what is 
India rubber 
procured ? 

Where does 
the rubber tree 
grow ? 

How is tlie 
India rubber 
obtained ? 

What is its 
appearance ? 



How 
prepared 
export ? 



It 
for 



What gives it 
a dark color ? 



What other 
names are 

applied to rub- 
ber ? 



94 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

What are its the latter term implies, it is pliable, extremely elastic 
properties. and soft. At the same time it is tough and not 
What is the easily cut. It burns when lighted, with a white 
effect of burning fl^me and thick smoke, and emits a strong, disagree- 
able odor. 

Uses of caoutchouc. — The extreme elasticity 

of this substance makes it available for many pur- 
Name articles . '■ 
made of India poses. Air cushions, portions of surgical instru- 

rubber. ments and delicate machinery are made of this 

material. As it does not dissolve in water or allow 

liquids to pass through it, water-bags and liquor 

pouches are fashioned of it. It is employed in 

How is rib- making elastic bandages, garters, suspenders etc. 

bon elastic,. r . i • • i . .. i 

made? it IS woven tor this purpose into an elastic ribbon, 

the rubber in fine threads running the length of the 

How IS It ribbon, the cross threads being of silk or cotton 
used ? . . ° 

Cut into small pieces rubber is used to erase pencil 

Why is this marks. The property it has of removing lead pen- 
substance called ., , 1 •, ^ 1 111 T 7 

rubber ? cil marks caused it to be called rubber. 

"Waterproof clothing.— When India rubber 
ant liquid^ "^is ^^ mixed with naphtha, turpentine or ether it forms a 
made of rub- liquid which makes any substance to which it is ap- 
plied thoroughly water-proof. When cloth is cov- 
ered with a layer of this liquid it is used for making 
How is it ladies' rain-cloaks, gentlemen's coats, over-shoes, 
"^^ boots, and blankets for carriages. 

What is Mackintoshes — This name is applied to rain- 

Mackintosh .,,.,. , 

cloth ? cloaks made ot a strong material which is composed 

of two layers of cotton or linen with a layer of rub- 
ber paste between them. The cloth so prepared 

used°P^^^ '^' receives its name Mackintosh from the inventor of 

the fabric. The cloth is often striped or checked 

. . and garments made of it are pretty as well as ser- 

What is Its . *=> f / 

appearance? viceable. 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 95 

Vulcanized rubber. — When the caoutchouc what is vui- 

... , , 1 ' 1 • ^ J i. • i. t i. canized rubber? 

IS mixed with sulphur and subjected to intense neat 

it undergoes a complete change. It becomes more Name articles 

elastic than ever, but loses its adhesive qualities and made of it. 

is not affected by heat or cold. It is used for 

•^ . How IS It 

springs, belting, gas tubes, and hose-pipes. When made still more 

a pitchy substance is added it becomes hard and ornamental? 

black, and when highly polished is a very handsome 

material. It is used for making combs, boxes ^ For what is it 

ornaments, knife-handles, buttons, chains, jewelry, 

etc. 

The art of vulcanizing rubber was discovered by thf alt^or ^ul- 
a man named Goodyear in New York City. canizing dis- 

Th.e rubber tree. — The tree from which this 
gum is obtained grows to a great height before the How is the 
branches spread out. The species from India is so rubber tree val- 

^ ^ ued in this 

beautiful that it is cultivated as an ornamental plant country? 
in some conservatories in this country. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



INDIA RUBBER. 

1. SOURCE. 6. USES. 

2. COLLECTING IT. 7. RIBBON ELASTIC. 

3. PREPARATION FOR EX- 8. WATERPROOF CLOTHING. 

PORT. 9. MACKINTOSHES. 

4. PROPERTIES. 10. VULCANIZED RUBBER. 

5. OTHER NAMES APPLIED IL ITS USES. 

TO IT. 12. THE RUBBER TREE. 

OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING INDIA RUBBER. 



1. PICTURE OF RUBBER TREE. 

2. PIECE OF RUBBER. 

3. RIBBON ELASTIC. 

4. RUBBER BAND OR BALL. 

5. SAMPLE OF VULCANIZED RUBBER. 

6. BUTTONS, CHAINS, &c. MADE OF IT. 

7. WATERPROOF CLOAK, OVER-SHOES, &c. 




Description of plant— Tobacco is a plant 
five or six feet in height, which grows extensively 
in North America, and is cultivated in other coun- 
tries. It has a moist, hairy stem, and very large 
leaves, these latter being sometimes two feet long. 
The leaves are arranged round a single stalk, and 
the flowers, which are white and shaped like a 
funnel, grow at the top of the plant. 

Cultivation- — The tobacco plant requires a 
rich soil. It is raised from seed, which is usually 
sown in January, in little seed-beds. The seed- 
beds are protected from frost by spreading small 
branches of trees over them. By June, the plants 
have made a fine start and are then transplanted to 
another field. The transplanting must take place 
in rainy weather or the shoots will not grow. 

^?V^h.ere raised- — Tobacco is cultivated in the 
West Indies, in the southern portions of the United 
States and in Connecticut. Virginia is considered 
the best tobacco-growing state. The plant is also 
raised in some parts of Europe. 



Describe the 
tobacco-plant. 

How are the 
leaves arranged? 

Where do the 
flowers grow? 

How is to- 
bacco c u 1 1 i - 
vated ? 



When does 
the trans-plant- 
ing occur ? 



Where is the 
plant raised ? 

Where is Vir- 
ginia? 



gg TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

Preparation for the market.— The plants 

are cut down, usually at noon-time, when the sun 

is hottest and spread out to dry. In some regions, 
llow are the regular drying-barns are built, and the tobacco 

stalks are hung up in them until the leaves are dry. 

When first cut, the leaves have very little taste or 

How do the smell, but when dry, the taste is extremely bitter, 

dry leaves taste ^^^j ^j^^ odor is Strong and disagreeable. When 

and smell? r- i i i i -in 

perfectly dry, the leaves are a greenish-yellow 

color. They are stripped from the stems, sorted 

^'^ and packed for exportation. The leaves growing 

the poorest^ ^ ° ° 

leaves? lowest on the plants are the least valuable. 

How is to- Methods of using-— Tobacco leaves are pre- 
baccoused? pared for use in several ways. Rolled up tightly, 
they form cigars. When used with a pipe, they 
Whatissnufl? ^^^ cut into small pieces, and when ground very 
fine, snuff is the result. For chewing, the leaves 
are pressed into small cakes and enveloped in tin 
foil. 

Wide-spread use of tobacco-- There is no 

How did the climate in which tobacco is not consumed in some 
American Indi- form. Both civilized and savage nations make use 
anss ow iien - ^^ .^ j^ .^ thought that the habit of smoking was 
snip r ° _ ° 

prevalent among the Indians of America, long 

AA7U » before the first white settlement was made. For 

What is a 

Calumet? Indians of different tribes to smoke together is a 

sign of good feeling, and the Calumet or "pipe of 

Which people peace" is always smoked after a bargain or treaty 

are the greatest has been Completed. The Turks and Persians are 

smoers? the greatest smokers in the world. In India also, 

nearly every one smokes, and in China the habit is 

ere do universal, even little girls using pipes. 

these people ^ a r r 

live? Discovery by Spaniards — Tobacco was 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 



99 



discovered by the Spaniards in the latter part of ^^ '^^ intro- 
the fifteenth century in St. Domingo. One of the :'"'*''^ '''^^'''''' 

f--i -1 ri T-1, '"^'^ England? 

Spaniards carried some oi the tobacco to bngland, 

where it was raised at first merely as an ornamental How was it 

and curious addition to the garden. It was soon 'Jsed at first? 

considered a luxury to smoke, and the use of 

tobacco was adopted by the wealthy. 

Effects of using tobacco-— The effects of How does 
tobacco upon the human system are universally chewing affect 
acknowledged to be injurious. When chewed, it P^°pi*^'' 
discolors the teeth, and impairs the digestive 
organs. No one who is naturally orderly and neat, 
would indulge in this disgusting habit. When u it a clean 
smoked moderately, its action on the system is at habit? 
first pleasant, but habitual use of tobacco in this 
form causes many diseases. One of the most dan- what are the 
gerous results of a constant use of tobacco is par- dangers of con- 
alysis, or loss of the power of moving any part of ^^^"' smoking? 
the body. The oil which is found in the leave*- is where do 
a deadly poison. It is said that the Hottentots the Hottentots 
kill snakes by dropping some of this oil on their ^'^e? 
tongues. 

Cigarettes.— The most harmful way in which of what are 
tobacco is used, is in the form of cigarettes. These cigarettes made? 
are seldom made of pure tobacco, but are formed 
from the stumps of old cigars and refuse matter. 
Many young boys injure their health by smoking 
cigarettes. 

No decrease in use.— in spite of the suffer- fjas suffering 

ing caused by tobacco, and the many learned lessened the to- 
writers who have expressed their disapproval of it bacco habit? 
in strong language, the habit of using the weed is 
in no way diminished. 



BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 



TOBACCO. 



1. SOURCE. 

2. CULTIVATION. 

3. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCA- 

TION. 



5. HOW USED. 

6. EARLY USE OF TOBACCO. 

7. DISCOVERY OF TOBACCO. 

8. EFFECTS OF ITS USE. 



4. PREPARATION OF LEAVES. 9. CIGARETTES. 



OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING TOBACCO. 



1. TOBACCO LEAF. 

2. CIGAR. 

3. CIGARETTE. 

4. SNUFF. 

5. CAKE OF TOBACCO FOR 

CHEWING. 




How made. — Paper, at the present time, is 
made of old rags. These are collected by peddlers, 
who sell them to the paper-manufacturers. The 
rags are sorted, so that those of the same color and 
quality will be together. They are cleaned and 
bleached until white. Chlorine is used for the 
bleaching. Then a machine with sharp knives cuts 
and tears the rags into tiny pieces. These pieces 
are mixed with water and form a pulpy substance. 
The water is drained away and the solid matter is 
subjected to great pressure until it is flattened into 
a thin sheet. When it dries, it is the material we 
call paper. The beauty and strength of paper 
depend upon the kind of rags used. 

Varieties of paper- -Writing-paper receives 
its fine surface from being dipped in a mixture of 
alum and hot glue. The paper is cut into sheets 
of various sizes such as are used for note-paper, 
leg al- cap , foolscap, &c. Twenty- four of these sheets 
form a quire, and a quire with envelopes to match 
is often put up in bo.xes for sale. The large sheets 



Of what is 
paper made ? 



How are the 
rags prepared 
for the machin- 
ery? 



What is done 
to the pulp ? 



How is writ- 
ing paper pre- 
pared ? 



How is it 
arranged to 
sell? 



I02 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 

are' usually sold by the ream. Twenty quires or 

four-hundred and eighty sheets make a ream. 

For what are Some note paper is very fancy in finish and hand- 
common rags f r J J 

used? somely decorated. Coarser paper, such as is used 

for drawing, blotting-pads, newspapers, &c., is 

made of the commonest rags. 

Of what is "VVall-paper is often made of old, worn-out 

made? pieces of paper, reduced to a pulp, and pressed 

over again. It is colored and printed with fancy 

colors. 

Whatispa.'te- "Pasteboard- — This material is made of several 

board? a. «,o u^ wv^c*,j. vi 

sheets of paper, pasted one above the other. It is 
For what thick and strong and vast quantities of it are used 
for making boxes. 

D ribe Papier-maclie. — Many articles, such as plates, 
papier-mache, pails, vascs, &c., are made of a strong paper sub- 
stance, called papier-mache. The rag pulp is 
mixed with glue or sizing and moulded into the 

Of what use , . j i t-i -• i ^• 

igjiP desired shape. 1 he articles are sometimes var- 

nished and are then durable and water-tight. 

What is pap- Ancient methods of paper-making-— The 

yrus? Egyptians made paper out of a reed-like plant 

which grew on the banks of the Nile river. The 

For what ° 

used? plant was called papyrus, and the name paper is 

derived from that word. The bark of this plant 

was stripped off and flat layers made of it. One 

Where is layer was pasted on top of another and a strong 

Egypt? material was made upon which the Egyptians 

wrote. 

Ch^nesTlite?*" ChineSC-paper — The Chinese manufacture 

various kinds of paper, using many different sub- 

Of what do stances. They make it of the bark of plants, of 

theymake r-n '-r^^ - iij 

paper? cotton, and of Silk. They make a fine paper callea 



TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. IO3 

rice-paper which is used for wrapping up delicate 
articles, for table-napkins, and for printing upon. 

The Japanese manufacture strong paper from the ^j^^^ ^[^ j,^ ^ 
bark of the mulberry tree. It is used for umbrellas, Japanese use? 
tents and articles of clothing. It looks much like where is 
silk and is varnished, so that it will be water-proof Japan? 

Uses of paper- — Many of the ways in which 
paper is used have been already mentioned. Print- 
ing was invented after paper had been manufactured 
for many years. It would be of little use, were 
there not such a cheap material plentifully sup- what art de- 
plied. Newspapers and books require quantities of P^^n^he^m^an^ 
this material, and there is hardly a small town ufacture of 
even, where some work of this kind is not done. ^^^ 
All large cities have one or more printing estab- is much paper 
lishments and it would be difficult to estimate the ^'^^'^^ 
amount of paper used daily. 

The first paper-makers.— The nests of 

wasps are made of a substance resembling paper. 

These little insects make this material by mixing n,ake^pape,T''' 

the fibres of trees and plants with their saliva so as 

to form a pulp. They spread this pulp out and 

build nests of it, either in a hole in the ground, or of what do 

hanging from walls or the branches of trees. ^'^^y '"^'^^ '^'' 

The nests are divided into cells, the walls being 
constructed of thick paper. 

Frequent additions are made to the nests, new Describe 
paper being made by the little manufacturers for ^waspsnes. 
this purpose. 





BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 






PAPER. 


1. 


MANUFACTUEE. 4. PAPER MAKING IN EGYPT. 


2. 


KINDS OF PAPER. 5. CHINESE-PAPER. 


3. 


PAPIER-MACHE. 6. USES OF PAPER. 






7. PAPER MADE BY WASPS. 




OBJECTS 


TO AID IN TEACHING PAPER. 




1. 


OLD RAGS. 




2. 


PAPER PULP. 




3. 


DIFFERENT STYLES OF WRITING- 
PAPER. 




4. 


NEWS-PAPER. 




5. 


WALL-PAPER. 




6. 


PASTE-BOARD. 




7. 


ARTICLE MADE OF PAPIER-MACHE. 




8. 


SAMPLE OF RICE-PAPER. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESSi 



